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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE SURVEY
The theoretical framework within which this study is undertaken can be classified as a phenomenological-existential approach. In Chapter 1 a brief explanation was provided of the reasoning behind this choice of theoretical approach. It is my opinion that the research material does not allow for any other theoretically-based approach. This chapter will also support of this choice by tracing some trends in the existing literature. Further support will also be provided by attending to the relevant epistemological-ontological debate that underlies this choice, by observing how phenomenological inquiry can helpfully inform the search for meaning, and, in closing, by describing some implications of this methodological approach that is needed by a study of this kind.
The epistemological-ontological debate
Several ways of knowing and ways of living/acting fall under the broad heading of phenomenology. “Existential” may be regarded as a theoretical orientation under this heading, together with other orientations — such as the hermeneutical or linguistic. A survey of ways of knowing within this orientation, as manifested in the existing literature, will help to determine the ways of knowing that are most appropriate to this research project. Written texts, for example, express knowing in language, providing us with access to such knowing. Van Manen (2000) stated that “Writing is the way that phenomenology is practised”. He reminds us that phenomenologists such as Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, Sartre, De Beauvoir, Levinas, Bachelard were not only scholars but also and especially gifted authors. We shall also have to investigate some the basic themes in an existential-phenomenological approach to knowing.Themes such as ‘lived experiences,’ ‘modes of being,’ ‘ontology,’ and ‘life world’ are often addressed in the existential-phenomenological literature. Phenomenologists such as Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty turned towards the existential world as we live and experience it. Consequently some of their basic conceptualisations are the starting point for conceptualising the theoretical framework later to be used in the research section of this thesis. A single case study will be done using, amongst others, the spontaneously-written text of a personal diary as a major source of knowledge. Sources of knowledge such as language will thus be used in this study, and methods of reflection such as thematic reflection might be used during the process of inquiry.A phenomenological-existential approach is one of the few, if not the only theoretical framework or approach that allows for both a single case study and analytical approaches or attitudes such as linguistic and thematic analysis to be applied within the same broader context of qualitative research. Merleau-Ponty (1962, p.vii) describes phenomenology as follows.This definition is loaded with concepts that might guide us along the way to finding a proper theoretical framework for this thesis. This includes concepts such as essences, perception, consciousness, facticity, and a philosophy that puts essences back into existence. Essences generally refers to the intrinsic nature or quality of something. It is that element which makes something different from something else – it defines its character. However, when Merleau- Ponty (1962) uses this concept, he refers to more than just this character-defining element. He uses it in a broader sense to refer to that way of being that makes human experience or being or living different from the way of living or being of any other species. He talks about the condition that makes human beings human, and takes it a bit further to include the way in which human beings interact with their world. Van Manen (2000) considers that, “…Merleau- Ponty’s phenomenology is existential, oriented to lived experience, the embodied human being in the concrete world.”Perception refers to the way in which human beings understand or interpret something – their impression of something. In Merleau-Ponty’s (1962) definition it is used in the context of human experience. Human beings perceive according to how they are, live or exist. The essence of perception will therefore always be linked with the essence of your way of living or existing. One distinguishing characteristic of the way in which human beings live, is the fact that they can be conscious of their way of living or being and of the very fact that they live or exist.
Consciousness is probably one of the concepts over which philosophers and existentialists have spilled the most ink and produced the largest tomes. When Merleau-Ponty (1962) writes about consciousness he refers to much more than just the awareness that human beings might have of something in their world, or even of the fact that they exist. It includes their whole living world: their time, space, interactional world, their cognitive world, and every possible additional aspect of the way in which they exist. Human beings are consciousness.
Facticity refers to the fact that human beings exist as unique beings within a unique context, implying involvement in a unique set of circumstances and interactions. For Merleau-Ponty, facticity is not so much about the essences as about establishing contact with the world through methods of reduction. He is interested in the humanity of human beings and how that distinguishes us from all other beings, more than in searching for essential materialistic components of the world. Searching for the essence of something implies reduction – reducing it to its core element. However, ironically, only things can be reduced in this sense, and not human beings. As soon as human beings interact with the material world, such a reduction is impossible. The core element or essence of the investigated or perceived phenomenon involved in the interaction therefore stands in relation to the human being interacting with it. Even if what is investigated is a material object, when a human being is involved through observing it or interacting with it, that material object becomes part of a bigger (not smaller or lesser) encompassing reality. It becomes more than it had been or different from what it had been before the human being’s involvement.According to Van Manen (2000), Merleau-Ponty also expresses his position on phenomenological inquiry by saying that it “…can never yield indubitable knowledge [because of]…the impossibility of a complete reduction”. Instead, he regards phenomenological inquiry as “…a manner or style of thinking”. This has to do with the fact that human beings are unique. They exist and relate to the world in a different way than any other living organism or species. As soon as they are involved with any phenomenon, that phenomenon is also rendered unique.
The paradoxical phenomenon studied in this thesis — namely, crimes of passion as explicated between the lines of the diary of someone who murdered someone he claims to have loved very dearly — certainly seems unique in all the mentioned senses of the word. It also appears very difficult to explain. Yet this does not imply that it has never happened before, or that it will never happen again, nor that it has no bearing on other human beings. Phenomenology makes it possible to study an event like this by allowing its facticity to reveal itself to us through reflective techniques for analysing events and descriptions, such as diaries and essays. The bearing upon others flows from the very nature of the studied subject, the fact that it is a human phenomenon. It does not need to be generalised or compared with other similar phenomena in order to be relevant. The relevance and usefulness have to do with the fact that it has to do with real human experience and existence.Just by observing how central the concept of existence is in Merleau-Ponty’s view of phenomenology, it can be postulated that phenomenology has a definite companion in existentialism. In his comprehensive study of the latter subject, Rollo May (1958, p.11) defines existentialism as “…the endeavour to understand man by cutting below the cleavage between subject and object which has bedevilled Western thought and science since shortly after the Renaissance”. Kruger (1988, p.12) points out that Descartes introduced two dualisms in psychology, namely, the dualism between body and spirit, and that between person and world. The influence of these dualisms is still clearly visible in most subdivisions of psychology.How these Cartesian dualisms acted upon the human sciences such as psychology becomes even clearer the distinction by Van den Berg (1980) between convergent and divergent thinking. Simply put, convergent thinking attempts to solve problems by reductionalistically, or through logical reasoning; in principle, convergent thinking can be computerised or expressed through formulas and theory. However, this does not hold true for true human problems (or crises). Human problems are divergent, often with no solution in the usual sense of the word; often, such problems are better expressed through rhetorical questions or poetry than through questions with direct and simple answers.Theorists and researchers very often attempt to express human crises in a convergent way, through models and theory. I contend that a divergent approach is better suited to describing phenomena such as crimes of passion, for the very reason that they involve human beings in many ways. They are deeds committed by one human being on another for a reason that is so paradoxical and difficult to explain that it can only be human. For Van den Berg (1980, p.30) « …phenomenology is the science of divergent thinking about man and his world”. Human beings are complicated by nature. That is why simplification and most popular ways of reduction very often result in unsatisfactory answers when phenomena involving human actions are studied. Human beings cannot be separated from their subjective nature. They are involved in their actions in complicated ways, making every deed more than just an objective application of something to something else. The paradoxical nature of a crime of passion cannot be explained in a satisfactory way, without considering that it is a human phenomenon.
Although May (1958) studied the subject matter of existentialism when he observed the cleavage that he refers to, a thorough study of this phenomenon makes it clear that this cleavage has practical implications. The cleavage between subject and object, starting with Descartes in the sixteenth century, meant in practice that human beings since the sixteenth century considered that they should attempt to be objective towards themselves and their world. In academic methods and approaches, subjectivity obtained a negative connotation in the sense that it became associated with being un-scientific or un-substantiated. Objectivity
was believed to be the only stance or attitude enabling empirical knowledge and research, even when a human being or a human action is the subject of research. Scientists influenced by Descartes’ cleavage between subject and object could only study human experiences and emotions from an outside stance. Inside, subjective reports were regarded as invalid research material, unless proved to be similar to the reports of a significant percentage of reports by others in similar circumstances, indicating a “proven tendency.” Sometimes this attitude even implied that human experiences should be expressed or explained in terms of mechanistic processes expressed through statistics, reducing them to formulas.Existentialism as a theoretical attitude, believes, to the contrary, that subjectivity is the most valid stance from which a person’s experience of their self and their world can be described and studied. That person’s experiences of their body, relationships and world of objects are inevitably intermingled with their subjective experiences and emotions. The subject of this study certainly has to do with human, subjective experience. Studying it from only an objective stance would be just as inappropriate as trying to start an engine without fuel, say, by talking to it: it would be applying an approach that does not match the nature of the subject (Edwards 1998; Giorgi 1985; Kruger 1988).From an existential-phenomenological perspective, when asked about the essence of a person’s experience of a crisis such as having to deal with the ramifications of a crime of passion, it could be said that that person is confronted with their own limitations, or the boundaries of their existence. People do not like to be reminded of the fact that they have to die some time, and that they do not know how and when this is going to happen. Along with this awareness that people’s existence is limited comes an awareness that their knowledge and understanding is limited. Many things are beyond people’s comprehension. They do not always know why things happen and how they operate, nor why they came into existence or exist at that moment. This existential anxiety often referred to in relation to a person’s dealings with their own death and/or limitations is a central theme of existentialism and phenomenology.Park (2001, p.89) states that “…anxiety is being ‘afraid’ when there is nothing to fear.” He further explains that anxiety is the non-psychological twin of fear; it feels like ordinary fear, but it does not arise from a situation and it has no intelligible cause. Fear arises from living in the world: Because we live in a world of real dangers, we are sometimes understandably afraid. Anxiety arises from within ourselves: from the depths of our being we feel a sense of threat that has no cause. A human action such as committing a crime of passion can be linked with existential anxiety, because it certainly fills anybody with fear just to think of the possibility that it can take place. Just as with existential anxiety, there usually seems to be no
reason for such an act and its meaning is very difficult to explain. It involves the limit of human existence (death) as well as the limit of human comprehension.Phenomenological literature pertaining to the person and their limitations or boundaries will therefore be explored to the extent that it may possibly help to understand crimes of passion by analysing John’s diary.
The Person and his/her Limitations or Boundaries
Human beings tend to disregard and avoid the fact that they have limitations. To be limited refers to our living within the boundaries of our own birth and death – that we are mortal and destined to having to face up to our own death at some point in our lifespan. Our own mortality is especially difficult to confront. Kruger (1988) points out that modern man in particular wishes to avoid the fact of her or his own death: « Whereas in the latter part of the nineteenth century and the early part of this century, the great taboo in Western world was sex, as of now, it is death” (Kruger, 1988, p.72).Crises, however, remind us of our own boundaries and of our death as the final destination of life, but also force us to confront it. While usually a very intense experience, such a reminder of a person’s own destiny also connects that person to certain irrefutable truths about their existence. Chessick (1986, p.86) points out that philosophers such as Jaspers and Heidegger deliberated the point that truth begins in certain fundamental experiences in the lived world, so-called boundary situations such as death, anguish, guilt, and suffering. In this context, a boundary situation can refer to a confrontation with either our own limitedness or our own death as our final destination.
Boundary situations remind us how important it is to live our life to the full. We never know when the last opportunity is going to be to show a loved one that we care, to deal with ‘unfinished businesses’ in relationships, to pay our debts, or to enjoy our health and freedom. Being reminded of our limitations brings about a ‘carpe diem’ attitude towards our being-in-the-world. We are brought to realise how much there remains to be done to contribute positively to ‘seize the day,’ or to do our share to make the world a better place to live in. We realise that we do not live in a void, and that our lives have an impact upon others’ lives, whether we like it or not. We live in our world with others, and we do it in a certain way, with a certain attitude. A crisis or boundary situation brings people to the realisation that they can no longer be ignorant about the way in which they live their lives with others in the world.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
SUMMARY.I
OPSOMMING
KEY TERMS
1 INTRODUCTION AND RATIONALE
2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 The epistemological-ontological debate
2.1.1 The Person and his/her Limitations or Boundaries
2.1.2 Passion and crisis experience
2.1.3 The person in crisis and their world
2.1.4 The person in crisis and his/her body
2.1.5 The person in crisis and their fellow beings
2.1.6 The person in crisis and time
2.2 Ways in which phenomenological inquiry informs the search for meaning
2.2.1 Lacan’s view of language
2.2.2 Lacan’s view of death
2.2.3 Where do existential dualities come from?
2.2.4 Hermeneutic phenomenology
2.3 The paradoxical picture of the ‘murderer
2.4 The methodological attitude in phenomenology
3 DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
3.1 Research problem and objectives
3.2 Research Method
3.2.1 Qualitative and quantitative research
3.2.2 Empirical and reflective research methods
3.2.3 Phenomenology as a research method
3.2.4 Other possible research methods
3.2.5 Summary of the chosen methods
3.2.6 Integration of chosen methods
3.2.7 Strengths and weaknesses of the chosen method
3.3 The type of questions to be answered
3.4 Units of analysis
3.5 Case study method – Single case study for analysis
3.6 Data collection and data reduction
3.7 Plausibility
3.8 Data analysis
3.8.1 The classification of data into categories (Natural Meaning Units)
3.8.2 The reduction and linguistic transformation of the selections into more psychologically descriptive terms
3.8.3 The elimination of those reduced statements developed in step 2 that are probably not explicating the meaning of crimes of passion
3.8.4 Application
3.8.5 Integration
3.8.6 Summary of proposed process of data analysis
University of Pretoria etd – Müller, M A (2004)
4 PRESENTATION OF JOHN’S STORY
4.1 The context of psychotherapy with John
4.2 John’s story – context and background
4.3 John’s story as reflected in his diary
4.4 Preliminary interpretations of John’s story
4.5 Conclusion
5 NATURAL MEANING UNITS IN JOHN’S STORY
5.1 Repetition within and across diary entries and other written communications
5.2 Expressions of emotion
5.3 Historical explanations, descriptions and interpretations
5.4 Explicit and implicit interpretations
5.5 Insights, not specifically mentioned before, that crystallised or surfaced during the process of psychotherapy
5.5.1 Handwriting, writing style and features of the language John used
5.5.2 Non-verbal forms of expression
5.5.3 Other information obtained during and after psychotherapy
5.6 Concluding comments
6 DESCRIPTION OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL MEANING OF JOHN’S CRIME OF PASSION
6.1 Overlapping semantic fields
6.1.1 John as a person
6.1.2 John’s experience of Mary
6.1.3 Anxiety
6.1.4 Relationships
6.1.5 Restitution
6.1.6 Serendipity
6.2 Authentic knowledge about John’s crime of passion
6.2.1 Knowledge related to John as a person
6.2.1.1 Life and death
6.2.1.2 Tenderness and brutality
6.2.1.3 Awareness and ignorance
6.2.1.4 Stability and instability
6.2.1.5 Express and impress
6.2.1.6 Obstacle and stepping-stone
6.2.2 Knowledge related to John’s relationships
6.2.2.1 Jealousy and contentment
6.2.2.2 Understanding and misunderstanding/over-standing
6.2.2.3 Construction and destruction
6.2.2.4 Love and hate
6.2.2.5 Justice and injustice
6.2.2.6 Belonging and uprootedness
6.2.3 Knowledge related to John’s environment
6.2.3.1 Fantasy and reality
6.2.3.2 Withdrawal and participation
6.2.3.3 Remembering and forgetting
6.2.3.4 Stretching time and pushing time
6.2.3.5 Freedom and incarceration
6.3 Application
6.4 Concluding remarks
7 INTEGRATION OF EXISTING THEORY AND NEW INSIGHTS
7.1 Traditional literature
7.2 Popular literature
7.2.1 Non-fictional literature
University of Pretoria etd – Müller, M A (2004)
7.2.2 Fictional literature
7.2.3 Literature about cyberspace
7.3 Existential-phenomenological literature
7.3.1 The authentic knowledge in John’s communications
7.3.2 John’s existential Crisis
1.1.3 John’s existential dualities
7.3.4 The cleavage between John’s mind and body.
7.3.5 John’s inauthentic and authentic existence
7.3.6 John’s language as a source of meaning
7.4 The formulation of paradoxes as a hermeneutical tool
7.5 Advantages of this study
7.6 Disadvantages of this study
7.7 Postlude
