THE PROVISION OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATION FOR BLACK PEOPLE FROM BEFORE 1652 UP TO

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THE CONCEPT “HISTORICAL-ANDRAGOGICAL STUDY”

The adjectives “historical” and “andragogical” are based on the concepts of “history” and “andragogy”. History is understood to be, according to Best (1977:340), a meaningful record of man’s achievements in the past. It is not merely a list of chronological events, but a truthful, integrated account of the relationships between persons, events, times and places. Good (1959:269) defines the term “history” as “the science or field of study concerned with the recording and critical interpretation of past events.” Man uses history to understand the past, and tries to understand the present in the light of past events and developments. “History”, understood in these general terms, is different from the “history of education”. Venter (1979:43) maintains that “history of education” is intimately concerned with the study of education in its manifestation through the ages. However, Venter warns that this must be seen as a branch of pedagogics and not of general history because history of education emphasizes the educational issues in a historical perspective. Knowles (in Tight 1996:103) defines the concept of “andragogy” as “the art and science of helping adults learn.” Adult learners have a number of unique characteristics which makes teaching them different from teaching children.
These unique characteristics of adult learners must be taken into account when planning for them to learn. Knowles (1984:55-59) identifies the following characteristics to be considered: i. Adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it. ii. Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions and their own lives. iii. Adults come into an educational activity with both a greater volume and different quality of experience from that of youths. iv. Adults are ready to learn those things they need to learn and be able to do in their actual life situations in an effective way. University of Pretoria etd – Sibiya, H S (2005) 27 v. Adults are life-centred or problem-centred in their orientation to learning; while children are subject-centred. In the light of what has been discussed so far, the concept “historical-andragogical” in this study refers to the question of what actually happened in the educational past in the field of ABE with a view to clarifying the educational present and laying down guidelines for the future.

THE CONCEPT “ALLEVIATION OF ILLITERACY”

According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (Sykes 1976:26), the term “alleviate” is derived from the Latin word alleviare, which means lighten, also mitigate, ameliorate, relieve, extenuate. “Eradication of illiteracy” is a term used by some authors to designate reduction of illiteracy. For the purpose of this study, the term “alleviation of illiteracy” is used because in practice, no country has ever eradicated illiteracy, as there is always a small percentage of the population which does not attain literacy for one reason or another, such as, those with learning handicaps, and so on. Thus, the term “alleviation of illiteracy” in this study refers to reducing illiteracy to a very low overall level. Many definitions exist for illiteracy. All relate in some way, at their core, to the state of a person who is functionally unskilful in reading and writing and who cannot engage effectively in all those activities in which literacy is normally assumed in his/her group or community (UNESCO 1978).

THE CONCEPTS “LITERACY” AND “FUNCTIONAL LITERACY”

Dictionary definitions of the term literacy refer to an individual’s ability to understand printed text and to communicate through print. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (hereafter referred to as UNESCO), “A person is literate who can, with understanding, both read and write a short simple statement on his every day life” (1978:18).These dictionary definitions and the definition from UNESCO stress the mechanical skills of reading and writing and do not elaborate on what the literate person can do with his or her literacy skills. University of Pretoria etd – Sibiya, H S (2005) 28 Coombs (1985:281) argues that, “The debate over the meaning of functional literacy, both outside and within UNESCO, has not been settled to this day and probably never will be, for the simple reason that no dictionary-type international definition can possibly fit all cultures and all times.”
This narrow mechanical concept of literacy was considerably broadened by UNESCO (Coombs 1985:280) when it gave wide currency to the term and defined it as follows: Rather than an end in itself [functional literacy] should be regarded as a way of preparing man for a social, civic and economic role that goes far beyond the limits of rudimentary literacy training consisting merely of the teaching of reading and writing. The very process of learning to read and write should be made an opportunity for acquiring information that can immediately be used to improve living standards. For the purpose of this study, the concept “literacy” will be based on the UNESCO definitions, which include the ability to read, write and calculate and also prepare man for a social, civic and economic role. With regard to the functional perspective of the UNESCO definitions of literacy, Baynham (1995:8) contends that, “ … the term ‘functional literacy’ emerges as a powerful construct in defining literacy in terms of its social purposes, the demands made on individuals within a given society, to function within that society, to participate and to achieve their own goals.” The concept “literacy” in this study will therefore be used to refer to the basic education and training of adults rather than to the strictly technical skills of reading and writing. This means that people with less than one year of schooling, most of whom are probably completely illiterate, learn to read and write in the person’s own language as well as an introduction to numeracy skills.

THE CONCEPT “EDUCATION”

The concept “education” has been interpreted differently by various educationists. Education is often defined as any process by which an individual gains knowledge, insight, or develops attitudes or skills (Tandekwire 1985:24). It could also indicate a process, a system or goal (Rogers 1992:20). Education is more often regarded as synonymous with the concept “schooling.” This means that education is equated with the classroom learning of the child at pre-primary, primary and secondary levels. However, the concept “education” has a much broader meaning since it implies learning which takes place from the cradle until death (Knowles & Klevins 1972:5; and Coombs 1991:13). Education for adults is used to refer to provision in any situation in which adults are systematically taught or systematically informed for educational purposes (Rivera 1987:12). The concept “education” in this study will not refer to the formal system of schooling for the child but will be used to encompass all forms of planned and spontaneous learning by which one adult, directly or indirectly, assists another adult to learn something. In this study “education” will furthermore, refer to occurrences, which should enable an adult learner to adapt rapidly and adequately to his/her own environment, taking into account the fact that life is a continuous interchange between people and their environment. It follows that “education” in this study must be seen as referring to a continuous occurrence of interchange, learning and adaptation.

The African College and the Mayibuye Night Schools

The methods employed in the night schools were basically the same as those evolved for young children in the conventional schooling system. In 1945 SAIRR launched a project which aimed at providing learning material and working out methods and techniques of training teachers for night schools (Bird 1984:203). Maida Whyte, wife of Quintine Whyte, the Director of the SAIRR, started with the implementation of the Laubach literacy method. The literacy method was carried under the slogan “each one teach one and win one for Christ” (Bird 1984:203). Wilson (1991:78) reports that each learner, according to this method, is supposed to teach someone else the first lesson before he is permitted to learn the second. Whyte adopted the Laubach literacy method to teach literacy in the South African vernaculars and in English and Afrikaans. This method was implemented by Whyte experimentally in the Donaldson Community Centre in 1946 and subsequently in many of the Johannesburg night schools, including the African College and the Mayibuye Night Schools.

Course To Teach Adults To Read and Write (CARW)

When the Adult Education Section was established, it was decided to make use of the literacy programmes offered by the existing literacy organisations such as the Bureau of Literacy and Literature and Operation Upgrade. In 1983 the Department decided to develop its own programme which was completed in 1986. It was therefore necessary to train all the literacy instructors in the field in order to enable them to offer the new course called CARW. In April 1987, a post for literacy advisor in each region was created for this purpose. CARW programmes were offered to 13 078 adults in 1988 (Department of Education and Training 1988:156). The CARW courses were available in the following languages: isiZulu, isiXhosa, SePedi, Sesotho, Setswana, Xitsonga, Thsivenda, Afrikaans and English. A candidate had to pass the CARW course with at least 50% in each of the languages, that is, mother tongue, English and Afrikaans, in order to be promoted to the Preparatory Course (Department of Education and Training 1994b:84).

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A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE PROVISION OF ABE FOR BLACK PEOPLE

FROM BEFORE 1652 UP TO 1994 In tracing the origin and development of ABE for blacks in South Africa in this chapter, from what may be termed education of adults into traditional culture in the pre-colonial period to the most recent provision, certain trends have emerged. What is apparent is that depending on the circumstances of the education the prevailing hegemony will make different demands on the educational system. So the cultural, political and social demands of a traditional culture of warriors and farmers will be profoundly different from an oligarchic hegemony of state which educates a labour force to serve its needs. Traditional education of adults was conceptualised and developed in a pre-literate social context. With the coming of the Dutch into South Africa, literacy amongst indigenous people and slaves was conceived in a limited way – reading, writing and arithmetic (see paragraphs 2.3.3; 2.4.3; 2.5.3 and 2.7.3). It needed to be sufficient to serve the needs of trade and limited communication. But in a predominantly oral society in which the indigenous communities have lived and live, the literarisation of the oral traditions can take decades. This has been the case in South Africa, which continues to have very large sections of the community living and functioning in rural communities. But the materials provided for adults have only recently begun to take on the challenge of the oral elements (needed and familiar) in literacy courses. This grave lack of understanding of what the literarisation process entails has led to stunted and uncreative materials for literacy courses.

CHAPTER ONE :ORIENTATION AND BACKGROUND

  • 1.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 1.2 POSING OF THE PROBLEM
  • 1.3 THE AIM OF THE RESEARCH
  • 1.4 DELIMITATION OF THE FIELD OF RESEARCH
  • 1.5 METHODOLOGICAL ACCOUNT
  • 1.5.1 APPROACHES
    • 1.5.1.1 The problem-historical approach
    • 1.5.1.2 The socio-andragogical approach
    • 1.5.1.3 The metabletic approach
  • 1.5.2 RESEARCH METHODS
    • 1.5.2.1 The historical-educational research method
    • 1.5.2.2 The Descriptive Method
    • 1.5.2.3 The Analytical Method
    • 1.5.2.4 The Chronological Method
    • 1.5.2.5 Case Studies
  • 1.5.3 TECHNIQUES IMPLEMENTED IN THE RESEARCH
    • 1.5.3.1 Interviews
    • 1.5.3.2 Personal observation
  • 1.5.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
  • 1.5.5 DISCUSSION OF SOURCES
  • 1.5.5.1 Primary sources
  • 1.5.5.2 Secondary sources
  • 1.6 PLAN OF STUDY
  • 1.7 EXPLICATION OF CONCEPTS
  • 1.7.1 THE CONCEPT “STRATEGY”
  • 1.7.2 THE CONCEPT “HISTORICAL-ANDRAGOGICAL STUDY”
  • 1.7.3 THE CONCEPT “ALLEVIATION OF ILLITERACY”
  • 1.7.4 THE CONCEPT “LITERACY” AND “’FUNCTIONAL LITERACY”
  • 1.7.5 THE CONCEPTS “ADULT AND ADULTHOOD”
  • 1.7.6 THE CONCEPT “EDUCATION”
  • 1.7.7 THE CONCEPT “ADULT BASIC EDUCATION”
  • 1.7.8 THE CONCEPT “ADULT BASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING”
  • 1.7.9 THE CONCEPT “LIFELONG EDUCATION”
  • 1.8 CONCLUSION
  • CHAPTER TWO THE PROVISION OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATION FOR BLACK PEOPLE FROM BEFORE 1652 UP TO
    • 2.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 2.2 ADULT BASIC EDUCATION FOR BLACK PEOPLE IN SOUTH AFRICA DURING THE TRADITIONAL PHASE (BEFORE 1652)
    • 2.2.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 2.2.2 AIMS
    • 2.2.3 CONTENT
    • 2.2.4 METHODS
    • 2.3 ADULT EDUCATION FOR BLACK PEOPLE UNDER DUTCH RULE (1652-1806)
    • 2.3.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 2.3.2 AIMS
    • 2.3.3 CONTENT
    • 2.3.4 METHODS
    • 2.4 ADULT BASIC EDUCATION FOR BLACK PEOPLE DURING THE MISSIONARY PHASE (1799-1953)
    • 2.4.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 2.4.2 AIMS
    • 2.4.3 CONTENT
    • 2.4.4 METHODS
    • 2.5 ADULT EDUCATION FOR BLACK PEOPLE IN THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA UP TO THE BANTU EDUCATION ACT OF 1953 (1910-1953)
    • 2.5.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 2.5.2 AIMS
    • 2.5.3 CONTENT
    • 2.5.4 METHODS
    • 2.6 REACTION TO AND OPPOSITION TO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ACT 47 OF 1953 REGARDING ABE
    • 2.7 ADULT BASIC EDUCATION FOR BLACK PEOPLE AFTER THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA (1954-1994)
    • 2.7.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 2.7.2 AIMS
    • 2.7.3 CONTENT
    • 2.7.4 METHODS
    • 2.8 A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE PROVISION OF ABE FOR BLACK PEOPLE FROM BEFORE 1652 UP TO
  • CHAPTER THREE SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING: 1994–
    • 3.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 3.2 THE MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM OF ADULT ILLITERACY
    • 3.3 CONCEPTUALISATION OF ABET
    • 3.4 FORMULATION OF THE ABET POLICY
    • 3.4.1 INTERIM GUIDELINES FOR THE PROVISION OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING
    • 3.4.2 POLICY DOCUMENT ON ADULT BASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING
    • 3.4.3 A NATIONAL MULTI-YEAR IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR ADULT EDUCATION AND TRAINING: PROVISION AND ACCREDITATION
    • 3.4.4 THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
    • 3.5 CURRENT STATE OF ABET PROVISION IN SOUTH AFRICA
    • 3.5.1 THE STATE AS ABET PROVIDER
    • 3.5.2 THE NLC AS ABET PROVIDER
    • 3.5.3 THE BUSINESS SECTOR AND ABET
    • 3.6 THE FUNDING OF ABET
    • 3.7 THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL LITERACY INITIATIVE (SANLI)
    • 3.7.1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
    • 3.7.2 THE STRUCTURE OF SANLI
      • 3.7.2.1 The National Office
      • 3.7.2.2 Provincial coordinating agencies
      • 3.7.2.3 The objectives of SANLI
      • 3.7.2.4 Overall objective
    • 3.7.2.5 Sub-objectives
    • 3.7.3 BENEFITS OF THE PROJECT
    • 3.7.4 PROPOSED IMPLEMENTATION MODEL-STRATEGY
      • 3.7.4.1 Who is SANLI targeting
    • 3.7.5 PROSPECTS FOR SANLI
    • 3.8 CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF CURRENT ABET PROVISION
    • 3.8.1 THE STATE OF ABET PROVISION
    • 3.8.2 NATIONAL LITERACY PROJECT
    • 3.8.3 POLITICAL WILL
    • 3.8.4 ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE
    • 3.9 CONCLUSION
  • CHAPTER FOUR REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON MASS-SCALE PROVISION OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: SOME
    • PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR SOUTH AFRICA
    • 4.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 4.2 A CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF LITERACY AND ILLITERACY
    • 4.2.1 DEFINITIONS OF THE CONCEPT “LITERACY”
      • 4.2.1.1 Traditional literacy
      • 4.2.1.2 Modern literacy and functional literacy
      • 4.2.1.3 Measurement of literacy level
      • 4.2.1.4 What is the current state of the literacy definition?
    • 4.2.2 DEFINITIONS OF THE CONCEPT “ILLITERACY”
    • 4.2.3 WHO IS AN ILLITERATE?
    • 4.3 LITERACY APPROACHES
    • 4.3.1 THE “FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATION” APPROACH
    • 4.3.2 THE “FUNCTIONAL LITERACY” APPROACH
    • 4.3.3 THE “CONSCIENTISATION” APPROACH
    • 4.3.4 THE “MASS CAMPAIGN” APPROACH
    • 4.4 FEATURES OF SUCCESFUL AND UNSUCCESSFUL LITERACY PROGRAMMES
    • 4.4.1 THE FACTORS BEHIND THE SUCCESS OF THE LITERACY CAMPAIGNS
      • 4.4.1.1 State involvement
      • 4.4.1.2 Mobilisation of the state and the masses
      • 4.4.1.3 Linking literacy to man’s fundamental needs
      • 4.4.1.4 A clear-cut language policy
      • 4.4.1.5 Establishment of administrative structures
      • 4.4.1.6 Planning of post-literacy activities
    • 4.4.2 THE FACTORS BEHIND THE FAILURE OF THE LITERACY CAMPAIGNS
      • 4.4.2.1 Lack of clear expression of the political will
      • 4.4.2.2 Lack of universal primary education in South Africa
      • 4.4.2.3 The choice of language
      • 4.4.2.4 Lack of post-literacy programmes
    • 4.5 A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF SOME SELECTED INTERNATIONAL LITERACY CAMPAIGNS
    • 4.5.1 THE MOZAMBICAN LITERACY CAMPAIGN:
      • 4.5.1.1 Historical Overview
      • 4.5.1.2 Political will and mobilisation
      • 4.5.1.3 Pedagogical aspects
      • 4.5.1.4 Post-literacy planning
      • 4.5.1.5 Summary
    • 4.5.2 THE TANZANIAN LITERACY CAMPAIGNS:
      • 4.5.2.1 Historical Overview
      • 4.5.2.2 Political will and mobilisation
      • 4.5.2.3 Pedagogical aspects
      • 4.5.2.4 Post-literacy planning
      • 4.5.2.5 Summary
    • 4.5.3 THE CUBAN LITERACY CAMPAIGNS:
      • 4.5.3.1 Historical Overview
      • 4.5.3.2 Political will and mobilisation
      • 4.5.3.3 Pedagogical aspects
      • 4.5.3.4 Post-literacy planning
      • 4.5.3.5 Summary
    • 4.6 LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE LITERACY CAMPAIGNS: SOME
    • PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR SOUTH AFRICA
    • 4.7 CONCLUSION
  • CHAPTER FIVE A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING FOR BLACKS IN SOUTH AFRICA
    • 5.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 5.2 BARRIERS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF INCREASED ABET PROVISION AMONG BLACKS IN SOUTH AFRICA
    • 5.2.1 UNSATISFACTORY MEASUREMENT OF LITERACY LEVELS
    • 5.2.2 LACK OF UNIVERSAL EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCARE IN SOUTH AFRICA
    • 5.2.3 LACK OF UNIVERSAL PRIMARY SCHOOL EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
    • 5.2.4 LIMITED RESOURCES
    • 5.2.5 SOCIAL ATTITUDES
    • 5.2.6 ABSENCE OF POLITICAL WILL
    • 5.2.7 ABSENCE OF CO-ORDINATED AND COHERENT GUIDANCE TO CENTRAL GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
    • 5.2.8 OVER-AMBITIOUS TARGETS
    • 5.2.9 INADEQUATE MOBILISATION OF ALL INTERESTED PARTIES AND POSSIBLE RESOURCES
    • 5.2.10 INFLEXIBLE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES
    • 5.3 A MODEL FOR THE SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF A LITERACY CAMPAIGN
    • 5.3.1 STUDY AND DIAGNOSIS OF PRE-CONDITIONS
    • 5.3.2 ARTICULATION OF THE POLITICAL WILL
    • 5.3.3 INSTITUTIONALISATION OF POLICY INITIATIVES
    • 5.3.4 ACCEPTABLE MEASURING CRITERIA AND PERFORMANCE INDICATORS TO DETERMINE LEVELS OF LITERACY
    • 5.3.5 AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TOWARDS THE ALLEVIATION OF ILLITERACY
    • 5.3.5.1 Provision of pre-school programmes for all children
    • 5.3.5.2 Improving accessibility and equality of primary school education
    • 5.3.5.3 Provision of adult literacy
    • 5.3.6 MOBILISATION OF THE MASSES AND RESOURCES
    • 5.3.7 STRENGTHENING PARTNERSHIPS
    • 5.3.8 ESTABLISHMENT OF FLEXIBLE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES
    • 5.3.9 CLEAR AND UNEQUIVOCAL GOALS FOR THE LITERACY CAMPAIGN
    • 5.3.10 SETTING OF REALISTIC TARGETS
    • 5.3.11 MOTIVATING ADULT LEARNERS
    • 5.3.12 POST-LITERACY AND LIFE-LONG EDUCATION
    • 5.3.13 EVALUATION AND INFORMATION FOR MANAGEMENT
    • 5.3.13.1 Evaluation by specialists
    • 5.3.13.2 Evaluation by learners, volunteer educators and supervisors
    • 5.3.14 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT FOR ABET
    • 5.3.15 FUNDING
    • 5.4 CONCLUSION
  • CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
    • 6.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 6.2 RETROSPECTION
    • 6.3 FINDINGS
    • 6.3.1 DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATION DURING THE TRADITIONAL ERA (BEFORE 1652)
    • 6.3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATION FROM 1652 TO
    • 6.3.3 PROVISION OF ABET AFTER
    • 6.3.4 A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF ABET PROVISION
    • 6.3.5 UNSATISFACTORY MEASUREMENT OF LITERACY LEVELS
    • 6.3.6 LACK OF AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO THE ALLEVIATION OF ILLITERACY
    • 6.3.7 LIMITED RESOURCES
    • 6.3.8 ABSENCE OF POLITICAL WILL
    • 6.3.9 INADEQUATE MOBILISATION OF ALL INTERESTED PARTIES AND POSSIBLE RESOURCES
    • 6.3.10 ADULT LEARNERS WERE NOT ADEQUATELY MOTIVATED
    • 6.3.11 NO CLEAR LINK BETWEEN LITERACY AND THE BASIC NEEDS OF HUMAN LIFE
    • 6.3.12 INFLEXIBLE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES
    • 6.3.13 SYSTEMS FOR MONITORING AND EVALUATION ARE LACKING
    • 6.3.14 THE TIMING OF THE CAMPAIGN CAME YEARS AFTER ATTAINING DEMOCRACY
    • 6.3.15 OVER-AMBITIOUS TARGETS
    • 6.4 CONCLUSION
    • 6.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
    • 6.5.1 ACCEPTABLE MEASURING CRITERIA OF LITERACY LEVELS
    • 6.5.2 AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TOWARDS THE ALLEVIATION OF ILLITERACY
    • 6.5.3 MOBILISATION OF THE STATE RESOURCES AND STRENGTHENING PARTNERSHIPS
    • 6.5.4 ARTICULATION OF THE POLITICAL WILL
    • 6.5.5 A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO LITERACY
    • 6.5.6 MOTIVATING ADULT LEARNERS
    • 6.5.7 ESTABLISHMENT OF FLEXIBLE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES
    • 6.5.8 MODEL FOR ABET PROVISION
    • 6.6 SHORTCOMINGS OF THE STUDY
    • 6.7 SUBJECTS FOR THE FUTURE RESEARCH
    • 6.8 CONCLUSIONBIBLIOGRAPHY
    • APPENDICES

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