Towards a definition of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

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Chapter 2 Literature review

 Introduction

The study examined how primary school teachers implemented CLT during their lessons. Chapter 1 presented an overview of the study highlighting the area of investigation and its background, the context of the study, the research problem, and the rationale for the study. I also stated the purpose of the study, the research questions, assumptions, and the scope of the study. Key terminologies were defined to ensure that their special meanings to the study were accentuated. The chapter concluded by outlining the research process. Previous CLT studies conducted in the Zimbabwean context have centred on secondary and high school levels leaving a gap at primary school level the foundation of education of learners in the education system.
Chapter 2 is a review of literature related to the research problem of the study. To ensure an organised literature review, I was guided by specific research questions related to the research problem. Therefore, each question references what literature says about the research problem. The reviewed related literature was meant to highlight CLT in order to settle for a particular working definition for this study. This approach sought to glean information from available literature on how CLT was implemented by primary school teachers. The review of literature therefore assisted in shaping the focus of my study. The reviewed literature is presented in two parts. The first section presents literature guided by the research questions. In this part the literature proffers various definitions of CLT and traces the development of the concept from a historical background. In addition, I briefly discuss the language policy and its indirect impact on the implementation of CLT. Secondly, I discuss studies that seek to understand other instructional approaches used for language teaching, apart from CLT. This broadened my view of how methodologies that were used to teach English compare when juxtaposed to CLT. Finally, it is critical for the review of related literature to discuss those activities used to implement CLT and the relevant factors that affect the implementation thereof. In the same section, I also present an overview of the conceptual framework to explain, predict, and understand the phenomena under study that is, how primary school teachers who participated in this study implement CLT during lessons. Therefore, the theoretical framework in this study was used as lenses to see how CLT is implemented by these primary school teachers. A detailed description of related theories in the conceptual framework guiding the study and their significance concludes the review of related literature.

The history of CLT

Communicative Language Teaching is a British innovation that was greatly influenced by the works of the Council of Europe, and became popular and important in the early 1970s (Littlewood 2007; 2013; Ozsevik 2010; Prasad 2013). Before the introduction of CLT in the United Kingdom, traditional teaching methods like the Grammar-translation Method and Audio-lingual Method were the dominant language instructional methods. CLT gained popularity when British functional linguists such as Halliday (1997) and Firth (1957), as well as American socio-linguists like Hymes and Gumperz (1972), became dissatisfied with the learning outcomes of traditional methods of language teaching. This was based on the belief that these methods of language teaching neither satisfied the communication needs of learners, nor developed their competence (Littlewood 2013). As a result, CLT was also introduced in Zimbabwe just like in other countries, and the traditional methods were discarded. Achieving CC became one of the goals of using CLT as a teaching approach in second language contexts (Xiao 2006; Hunter & Smith 2012; Prasad 2013), and Zimbabwe was no exception.
While the development and spreading of CLT was influenced by the British and North American linguists and educationists, it was the British language experts who first saw the need to teach communicatively. This was their way of moving away from focusing on the mastery of grammatical language structures. Linguists like Hymes (1972) stressed the importance of the socio-cultural environment in understanding linguistic and extra-linguistic behaviours as well as achieving CC. Hymes’ (1972) ideas influenced CLT widely in material, syllabus and textbook design. Similarly, learning aids and textbooks used in Zimbabwe should be designed to suit the socio-cultural environment as postulated by Hymes (1972) to implement CLT. In order to explore how primary school teachers implement CLT in this study I needed to determine how teachers implement CLT by examining the teaching and learning aids used.
The fact that CLT emphasises that learning occurs in a meaningful environment within which learners are able to interact, it means that teachers implementing CLT should allow learners to communicate. Cook (2008) states that learning a language communicatively is similar to learning through CLT. O’neil (2000) supports this view by reiterating that the aim of learning a second language through CLT is attained by allowing learners to use dialogue to achieve In this study, it means that CLT in teaching should be employed as a teaching approach to assist learners to acquire CC. The purpose of the use of CLT in teaching is to develop learners’ communicative skills that assist them to develop linguistically. The opportunities that primary school teachers create for communication among their learners should not only help the learners to master linguistic knowledge, but also CC CLT was introduced in Zimbabwean schools as it was clear that traditional methods of teaching were failing to produce communicative competencies in learners. In addition, the introduction of CLT also came from the understanding that learners exposed to the CLT approach may become more communicatively competent. During its formation, the post-colonial Zimbabwean primary school English syllabus adopted Hymes’ (1972) idea of using the socio-cultural environment and interactive activities to achieve communicative competence in primary school learners.
The foregoing discussion gives a summary of how CLT became a popular language teaching approach and why it was adopted in Zimbabwe. However, how teachers implement CLT appears to take into cognisance the use of interactive activities and socio-culturally related materials. While this study seeks to explore how primary school teachers implement CLT I observe the use of socio-cultural related learning materials, the activities employed and factors that affect how CLT is implemented. This should provide insight into whether or not CLT as an approach recommended by the Zimbabwean primary school syllabus is being implemented effectively. In the next section I define CLT and I produce a working definition suitable for this study.

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Towards a definition of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Ying (2010) defines CLT as an approach that uses interaction as a way to learn a language. Larsen-Freeman (2000) understands it as a communicative approach that facilitates effective communication. Thus, the explanation by Larsen-Freeman extends the definition by Ying (2010) in that it emphasises interaction during teaching, while Ying (2010) values facilitation as key to the teaching of English to promote effective communication. In this study I agree with both scholarly definitions and I embrace the view that CLT is successful when teachers employ communicative interaction to enhance communication. Littlewood (2011) views CLT as an approach that maybe used by teachers to develop a teaching framework to design methods and activities that are suitable to their teaching environments. Pica (2000) accepts that CLT as a communicative approach may be more effective than the traditional approach in that it improves the learners’ confidence and fluency in English. These definitions are supported by Brown (2007) and Hiep (2007) who commonly perceive that scholars that advocated for CLT regard it as a broad idea about the nature of language learning and teaching. I concluded that literature concurs with the idea that CLT is an incorporating approach to language teaching and learning rather than a method. This implies that CLT is considered as an approach rather than a method, and thus may be implemented using different activities that enhance interaction. Classroom teachers may have an opportunity to do their own interpretation and variation suitable to their environment as long as learners are given activities that allow them to interact. I agree with literature (Cook, 2001; Hiep, 2007) that as long as there is effective interaction among learners at primary school, then learners who are taught this way may be able to negotiate meaning through application of CLT. There is a dearth of related literature on how teachers implement CLT at primary school levels in Zimbabwe. This study is one step towards providing an understanding of how CLT is being implemented in the teaching-learning processes in English at primary schools.
The fact that CLT may not be emphasised in classrooms, learning may still occur if a meaningful environment is present within which learners are able to interact. According to Cook (2008), learning a language through communication is similar to learning using CLT. O’neil (2000) supports this view by reiterating that the aim for learning a second language using CLT is achieving learning of a language by allowing learners to carry out dialogue in the language. In this study I propose that the use of CLT in teaching will assist learners to develop communicative skills that will in turn assist them to develop linguistically.
In support of the above, Finch (2003) and Vongxay (2013) contend that the ability to recognise the logical basis of linguistic competence is in itself CC. Finch (2003) identifies three kinds of logic, namely formal logic, natural logic and the force of utterance. Formal logic is about promoting rules that direct valid arguments and help to understand the importance of communication. Natural logic assists learners to understand how their peers use language while the force of utterance assists learners to understand their meaning of utterances according to the different situational settings or social context.
I assumed that all three kinds of logic are important in a CLT classroom. During the observations I paid particular attention to whether learners were afforded the opportunity to contribute meaningfully during group discussions. During the implementation of CLT, teachers should make use of concrete lived experiences which facilitate learners’ ability to communicate and become versatile in English.
In addition, when CLT is properly implemented by teachers, learners may benefit by acquiring language appropriate for their day-to-day communication. This may include language for requests, communication, giving directions, greetings, and apologising.

Declaration 
Ethical clearance certificate
Acknowledgements 
Abstract 
Language editor
Table of contents
List of tables 
Table of figures 
List of addenda 
Chapter 1 Overview of the study 
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Context of the study
1.3 Situating myself in the study
1.4 Research problem
1.5 Purpose of the study
1.6 Rationale
1.7 Research questions
1.8 Assumptions of the study
1.9 Scope of the study
1.10 Key terminologies
1.11 Overview of the research design and methodology
1.12 Outline of the study
1.13 Chapter summary
Chapter 2 Literature review 
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The history of CLT
2.3 Towards a definition of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
2.4 The language policy in Zimbabwe and the implementation of CLT
2.5 Code-switching and the implementation of CLT
2.6 Other approaches used to teach English as a second language
2.7 What literature says about activities used in implementing CLT
2.8 Factors that influence the implementation of CLT .
2.9 Conceptual framework
2.10 Chapter summary
Chapter 3 Research design and methodology 
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research paradigm
3.3 Research approach: qualitative and inductive
3.4 Research methods
3.5 My role as a researcher
3.6 Chapter summary
Chapter 4 Data analysis and interpretation 
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Description of the participants in the study
4.3 Presented data from observations
4.4 Summary of categories, subthemes and themes
4.5 Main findings in terms of research questions
4.6 Chapter summary
Chapter 5 Significance and implications of the study 
5.1. Introduction
5.2 Implications of the findings of the study
5.3 Contribution to the existing knowledge base on CLT implementation
5.4 Recommendations
5.5 Generalisation and transferability of the study
5.6 Limitations of the study
5.7 Prospects for future research
5.8 Final thoughts and closing remarks
References
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