Translation studies in the African languages of South Africa

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CHAPTER 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK, RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The previous chapter focused on reviewing literature on translation studies globally and locally. This chapter will present the theoretical framework that will support the discussions in this study, the research design and methodology that will be used to conduct the research. The theoretical foundation that will underpin the arguments in this study will first be discussed then the research design that will be followed by the research methodology. Research tools that will be used for this study will also be discussed.

Theoretical framework

According to (Neuman, 1994:35), a theory is a « system of interconnected abstractions or ideas that condenses and organizes knowledge about the social world ». Neuman (1994:52) also asserts that a theory moulds how we look at and think about a topic. It gives ideas, provides rudimentary assumptions, directs researchers to the important questions, and suggests ways for making sense of data.
Parahoo (1997:100) indicates that a theory is simply an explanation of phenomena. He further suggests that theories are not the conclusive clarification, as they may be rejected or modified in time. Theories may compete to give a description of the same phenomenon. Mouton and Marias (1996:142) citing Kerlinger (1973), support what Parahoo (1997) promotes by defining a theory as:
a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations between variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomenon.
Mouton and Marias (1996:142) further advocate that theories be differentiated on the fact that they aim at explaining and forecasting occurrences or events. In addition, Sarantakos (1997:10) submits that theories are « lucidly made statements that summarise and organise knowledge in a particular area, and are open to testing, reformation and revision ».
To Morse (1992) as cited by Parahoo (1997:101), theories are « not facts and not the truth, but they are tools ». According to Palumbo (2009:63), theories distinguish sense from pre-established, abstract linguistic meaning.
Moody (1990) as cited by Parahoo (1997:102), identified « three types of theories: descriptive, explanatory, and predictive ». She refers to descriptive theories as the most basic type because they describe or classify specific characteristics of summarising the commonalities found in discrete observations. The descriptive theories are needed when nothing or very little is known about the phenomenon in question.
In relation to theory in translation, Schulte (1987) cited in Cluver (1989:126), defines a translation theory as:
the attempt to clarify and conceptualize the intricate and complex procedures that make the transferral of texts from one language into another possible.
Cluver (1989) further mentions that a translation theory aims at identifying the basic factors that determine the process of translation as its main aim. Its subordinate aim is to formulate criteria according to which translation can be assessed.
Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997:184) refer to the translation theory as « the entire discipline of TRANSLATION STUDIES ». Newmark (1981/1988:19) as cited by Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997:185) says that the main aim of a translation theory is to establish « appropriate translation methods » and to provide « a framework of principles, restricted rules and hints for translating texts and criticizing translations ». Newmark (1988:21) defines a theory of translation as « a large number of generalisations of translation problems ». To Newmark (1986:19), the main aim of a translation theory is to « determine appropriate translation methods for the widest possible range of texts or text-categories ». He further pronounces that a translation theory provides a « framework of principles, restricted rules and hints for translating texts and criticizing translations, a background for problem-solving ». Newmark (1986:19) also mentions that a translation theory:
gives some insight into the relation between thought, meaning and language; the universal, cultural and individual aspects of language and behaviour, the understanding of cultures; and the interpretation of texts that may be clarified and even supplemented by way of translation.
In other words, a translation theory covers an extensive multiplicity of searches that can help translators by encouraging them to translate better and to suggest agreements on common translation problems (Newmark, 1986:19). It has to do with translation studies as a whole, the evaluation of the translated texts with guidelines and procedures, and identifying its challenges.
Since this study is on translation studies, it is therefore paramount that theories that are pertinent to translation studies be outlined. The following segment will discuss translation theories that are relevant to this study.

Prescriptive Theories

Traditionally, translation was regarded as a subordinate activity that will only exist because of the other primary or original production (Kruger, 2000). That is why translators were given strict rules to follow that would determine if a translation was « ‘right’ or ‘wrong’, ‘faithful’ or ‘free’ and other rigid categories » (Kruger, 2000:29).
According to Heylen (1993) as cited in Kruger (2000:29), the prescriptive approach prescribes what translation should be in general and then developed a taxonomy of rules and laws for all translations that translators are expected to adhere to. Heylen (1993: 3) indicates that the prescriptive theories of translation were set out to debate specific challenges of translation to particular texts, but now they « prescribe what translation in general should be », and then come up with those guidelines and directives for all translations ».
Prescriptive approaches were to ensure accuracy between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT) in which the source text is considered primary and the target text secondary and derivative and should reproduce all aspects of the ST (Suh, 2005:6). The prescriptive approaches were concerned with what a translator must or must not do. The focus was on the closeness of the TT to the ST with regard to both meaning and form. In other words, the translator needed to reproduce the text, in all its aspects, as a target text. To Kruger and Wallmach (1997:121), this prescriptive approach has extensive inferences as it regards the idea of equivalence as a term used to judge the actual relationship between a translation and the original. Kruger and Wallmach (1997:121) add that the main shortcoming of prescriptive translation theories is that « they ignore the socio-cultural condition under which translations are produced in order to function in the receiving culture as acts of communication ».
In other words, prescriptive translation studies made a prescription for translators, which governed the work translated without considering other aspects of a translation.

Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS)

Since the current research is based on the theoretical framework of Gideon Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS), it is imperative to first discuss the early history of the translation studies. According to Suh (2005:6), DTS refers to a:
non-prescriptive type of translation study distinct from the prescriptive approaches that largely dominated the translation studies prior the 1980s.
It is a move away from prescriptive theories, which considered the translation of the target text to be equivalent to the source text. Baker and Saldanha (2009:77) say that DTS originated in the 1970s and that its fundamental activity was to be theoretical and descriptive. Palumbo (2009:34) explains that DTS was generally used as a label for translation studies approaches that have an « interest in translation as it actually occurs and as part of cultural history ». He further posits that James Holmes initially used DTS in a paper delivered in 1972 but published in 1988 to indicate « one of the branches of translation studies as a discipline of scientific enquiry ». Holmes (1988) as cited by Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997:38), describe DTS as « one of the two subdivisions of PURE TRANSLATION STUDIES (the other being THEORETICAL TRANSLATION STUDIES) ».
According to House (1997:6), DTS is target oriented. It compares literature and evaluates the quality of a translation according to the functions of the translation in the system of the target culture literature. According to the DTS approach, « the source text is not important, what matters is the target culture » (House 1997:6-7). Hermans (2014:7) mentions that DTS is also known as « the descriptive approach ». He further states that DTS strongly and deliberately opposed the « prescriptive » translation studies because these theories promoted the idea that the study of translation should be geared primarily to formulating rules, norms or guidelines for the practice or evaluation of translation or to developing didactic instruments for translator training.
From the above discussions, it is evident that DTS emerged as a way of moving from a prescriptive way of assessing translations that looked only at the translators and their translations without considering the product. Therefore, DTS focuses on translations as target oriented products, meaning that it takes everything that was produced into consideration, including culture. That is why Toury (1980, 1995) as cited by Baker and Saldanha (2009:77), believes that « translations are facts of the target culture and their characteristics are being conditioned by target culture forces ».
Toury (1980:80) clearly explains that the purpose of DTS is « to describe and explain empirical phenomena and as a result they lead to the accumulation of knowledge ». He also indicates that the above purpose is not the only sole function of DTS. Toury (1980: 80) further states that one of the aims of DTS is « always to put to test the hypotheses and models supplied by the theory, in whose framework the studies are carried out ». Hermans (2014:7) indicates that DTS focuses on the observable aspects of translation; hence, it is also known as « empirical ». Baker and Saldanha (2009:77) also describe the core activity of DTS as « theoretical and descriptive, with any prescriptive orientation relegated strictly to the applied branch ». They allude to Toury’s (1980) explanation that the main aims of DTS were to describe, explain and predict translational phenomena. Thus, the purpose of DTS is not to prescribe how translations ought to be done but to observe how translations have been done in practice, that is, in a specific historical moment (Kruger & Wallmach 1997:121). That is why Toury (1995) indicates that DTS « is especially concerned with observing what people do and documenting it ». However, theory that is descriptive generally aims to explain as well as to describe; for this reason, Toury refers to work done within DTS as « descriptive-explanatory » (Toury, 1995:15).
Descriptive Translation Studies focuses on three main types of research: product-oriented, process-oriented, and function-oriented. The product-oriented descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of individual translations. The process-oriented descriptive translation studies points at revealing the thorough process-taking place in the mind of the translator while he or she is in the process of translating. The function-oriented descriptive translation studies incorporate researchers that describe the function or impact that a translation or a collection of translations has had on the socio-cultural situation of the target language. The three different foci of research are interdependent, as dealing with one will mean touching the other one too. This study will only focus on the process and product oriented approach, hence it will deal with the description of the translated text as well as how the translator dealt with linguistic and cultural items (Behbahani, 2008; Toury, 1995).
Munday (2001:11) indicates that the product-oriented descriptive translation studies inspect existing translations, which can « involve description or analysis of a single ST-TT pair or a comparative analysis of several TTs of the same ST ».
Kruger and Wallmach (1997:121) further allege that contained by the latitude of descriptive translation, « all types of translated texts can be studied with the purpose of finding out how they have been translated within a specific culture and historical period ». House (1997:6) notes that in Descriptive Translation Studies, « researchers look upon literary translations as part of the ‘polysystem’ of the target culture literature ». By « polysystem », they mean a « differentiated and dynamic ‘conglomerate of systems’ characterized by internal oppositions and continual shifts » (Hermans 1985:11). Hermans (1985:11) further explains that the polysystem theory, perceives literary translation as « one element among many in the constant struggle for domination between the system’s various layers and subdivisions ».
Hermans (1985:13) as cited by Kruger and Wallmach (1997:121), emphasises the advantages of DTS in that it enables researchers to bypass deep-rooted source-oriented and normative traditional ideas concerning fidelity and quality in translation.
The descriptive translation theorists start with a practical examination of a corpus of texts and try to determine which norms and constraints operate on those texts in a specific historical moment.
It is against this background that DTS is used as an appropriate theory in this research. The reason for the suitability of DTS is that it aims to describe the observable facts of translations as they establish themselves in the world of our experience. DTS is suitable for the current study because it will support the discussion of cultural issues or aspects in Serudu’s translation of Mandela’s Long Walk to Freedom in this study.
In 1990, Bassnett and Lefevere came up with an offshoot of DTS, referred to as « the cultural turn » to address the issue of cultural facts in text. The following section will focus on Bassnett and Lefevere’s (1990) cultural turn.

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Cultural turn approach

As the study will also be exploring Serudu’s translation of Mandela’s Long Walk to Freedom from a cultural perspective, factors pertinent to culture will be looked at. Hence, the « cultural turn » as espoused by Bassnett and Lefevere (1990), will be investigated. This approach was introduced in the 1990s when Bassnett and Lefevere suggested that translation should take a « cultural turn ». Bassnett and Lefevere advocated that there was a need to move the emphasis onto translation studies, thereby combining the translation studies with the cultural studies (Machali 2012:81). According to Liu (2010:95), the cultural turn:
plays a leading role in the novel research paradigm; together with the theory of « patronage, poetics and ideology » proposed by Andre Lefevere, it contributes greatly to the theoretical development of translation studies from the cultural perspective.
Bassnett and Lefevere (1990), who advocate the cultural turn, sensed that the analysis of translation should include the tools of cultural history and cultural studies. It should start asking new questions related to the role that translation plays in shaping literary systems, the power negotiations translators are involved in, and the status of translated texts as rewritings of the originals. Bassnett and Lefevere (2001: xi) as cited by Zhang (2013:1919), reveal that the study of translation is in essence the study of cultural interaction. Zhang (2013) further points out that Bassnett and Lefevere claim that translators have always been provided with a vital link in enabling different cultures to interact. Translation is a means to partly convey, disperse, and control the cultural capital of a given culture not only between cultures, but also within one given culture.
Zhang (2013:1919) posits that the cultural turn is a tendency in the field of translation studies that is adopted by translators and scholars in their theoretical researches and translation practices when paying more attention to aspects relevant in culture or when conducting their translation studies from a cultural viewpoint.
Palumbo (2009:30) concurs with the above when he describes the term « cultural turn » as an:
attempt of moving the study of translation from a more formalist approach to one that lays emphasis on extra-textual factors related to cultural context, history and convention.
In other words, the cultural turn has moved away from the translation theories that concentrated more on the source texts and target texts without considering the role of social and cultural aspects in a translated text.
According to Yan and Huang (2014:491), « culture turn » means, « the process that cultural approach substitutes for linguistic approach and cultural factors was valued by translation ». In other words, this means that in cultural turn, there is a shift from only approaching translations linguistically to considering the cultural aspects as well. They further emphasise that unlike in traditional linguistic approaches, such as the prescriptive approach, where words, phrases, sentences, and texts are translational units, in the cultural turn approach, culture becomes the most important translational unit. They elaborate more by saying that this approach highlights the role played by culture in translation and treats « translation as a micrographic cultural shift » focusing on the translated text, the translator and the receptor culture. This is supported by Nord (2001:45) as cited by Sharifabad et al. (2013:96), who defines the translation process as a « target-culture substitute, whose aim is to function for the sake of the target receiver, for a source-culture text ». Sharifabad et al. (2013) explain that Nord (2001) wants translators to be directed by the aims and objectives of their translations as well as the function of the target text as guidelines.
Liu (2010:95) refers to « cultural turn »‘ as An external study [that] results from the development of western academic thinking trend, and it reveals its nature as a cultural activity and widen its research scope to deviate the static linguistic analysis by comparing original works and translated works, giving a true picture of the translation activity which took place in their special spatial-temporal context.
Zhang, (2012) as cited in Zhang (2013:1921), notes that the purpose of translation is to convey the cultural capital of a given culture, and translators should transmit the source language culture to the target culture systems.
From the above deliberations from different scholars, it is evident that the cultural turn approach to translation was introduced because translators concentrated more on linguistic units rather than cultural aspects. Cultural theorists see culture as a very important aspect in translation. That is why Yan and Haung (2014:490) emphasise that translation and culture are interwoven and one cannot exist without the other; they are inseparable. They further point out that « culture and culture exchange are the originations of translation, and translation is the product of culture exchange » (Yan & Haung, 2014:490). Zhang (2012), as cited by Zhang (2013:1919), stipulates that translations communicate different cultures and are the study of culture interaction. On the other hand, Yan and Haung (2014:493) specify that translators should balance the two approaches (cultural and linguistic approaches), and combine them in order to convey the message and make their translated texts a literature. DTS, and Bassnett and Lefevere’s « cultural turn » will not be the only theories to be used to examine Serudu’s translation.
The next section of the discussion covers the research design and methodology.

Research design and methodology

This section discusses what research design and research methodology is. Different types of research methods are highlighted while more emphasis is placed on the research method that will be selected for this study.
Before highlighting what research design and research methodology entails, it is appropriate to indicate what the meaning of research is. Leedy and Ormrod (2010: 2) define research as a systematic process of collecting, analysing, and interpreting information (data) in order to increase our understanding of a phenomenon about which we are interested or concerned.
They further emphasise that research originates with a question or problem, requires clear articulation of a goal, requires a specific plan for proceeding, and usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems. Research is guided by a specific research problem, question, or hypothesis; accepts certain critical assumptions; requires the collection and interpretation of data in an attempt to resolve the problem that initiated the research; and is by its nature, cyclical or helical (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010:2-3).

Research design

Burns and Grove (2001:47) define research design as a blueprint for the conduct of a study that maximises control over factors that could interfere with the study’s desired outcome. Brophy, (1981) as cited by Burns and Grove (2001:47), explains that the choice of research design depends on the researcher’s expertise, the problem and purpose for the study, and the desire to generalise the findings.
According to Parahoo (1997:142), a research design is « a plan that describes how, when and where data is to be collected and analysed »; the design also describes how the respondents are approached, informed and recruited. McMillan and Schumacher (2006) define a research design as the procedure for conducting an investigation, which includes when, from whom, and under which conditions the data will be collected. Mouton (2003:55) explains that the research design is « a plan that helps the researcher in deciding how the research will be carried out ». Selltiz et al. (1965) as cited by Mouton and Marais (1996:32), define a research design as « the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure ». Mouton and Marais (1996:193) maintain that the purpose of a research design is to plan, structure and execute a given research project so that the validity of the findings are maximised.
Nieuwenhuis (2010:70) refers to a research design as:
a plan or strategy which moves from the underlying philosophical assumptions to specifying the selection of respondents, the data gathering techniques to be used and the data analysis to be done.
Therefore, a research design is a plan and outline that gives direction on how an inquiry or research project will take place. In other words, it directs the implementation of the study and the problem and purpose of the study will guide the choice of the research design. Kumar (2011:96) argues that this plan is procedural and if adopted, will help the researcher to answer questions factually, precisely, and economically.

Table of Contents
DECLARATION
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction and background
1.2 Research problem statement
1.3 Aim of the study
1.4 Objectives of the study
1.5 Research questions
1.6. Justification
1.7 Research design and methodology
1.8 Theoretical framework
1.9 Ethical considerations
1.10 Definition of terms
1.11 Organisation of the study
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 
2.2 Translation studies globally
2.3 Translation studies in the African languages of South Africa
2.4 Translations studies in Sesotho sa Leboa
2.5 Research conducted on translations of Mandela’s Long Walk to Freedom in South Africa
2.6 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK, RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Theoretical framework
3.3 Research design and methodology
3.4 Research tools
3.5 Ethical issues
3.6 Conclusion
CHAPTER FOUR  ANALYSIS OF THE LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL ASPECTS IN SERUDU’S TRANSLATION OF MANDELA’S LONG WALK TO FREEDOM
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Background to translation studies
4.3 What is equivalence in translation?
4.4 Translatability and untranslatability
4.5 Domestication and foreignization
4.6 An analysis of the translation strategies that were used by Serudu in his quest for appropriate Sesotho sa Leboa lexical and cultural items
CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Overview of chapters
5.3 Findings from interviews with various translators
5.4 Research findings from Serudu’s translation
5.5 Conclusion
REFERENCES
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