WORK AND CAREERS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

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CHAPTER 3: PSYCHOLOGICAL CAREER META-COMPETENCIES

Keywords: career development; career drivers; career harmonisers; career preference; happiness; job/career satisfaction; life satisfaction; social contract; employability; psychological career resources; career adaptability; hardiness Chapter 3 addresses the second literature research aim pertaining to the conceptualisation of the psychological career meta-competencies constructs of psychological career resources, career adaptability and hardiness, and how individuals’ biographical characteristics influence the development of these competencies. In this chapter, the constructs of psychological career resources, career adaptability and hardiness and the related theoretical models will be explored. The variables influencing the development of psychological career resources, career adaptability and hardiness and the implications for retention will also be discussed. The chapter concludes with an evaluation of the theoretical foundations of the constructs of psychological career resources, career adaptability and hardiness, highlighting the contributions and limitations of relevance to this research.

PSYCHOLOGICAL CAREER RESOURCES

The concept of psychological careers will be discussed in the subsections below. Firstly, the concept of psychological career resources will be conceptualised, and this will be followed by a discussion of the theoretical models and the variables influencing psychological career resources.

Conceptualisation of psychological career resources

Resources are defined as those psychological entities that are either centrally appreciated in their own right (e.g. self-esteem, close attachments, wellbeing and internal tranquility) or operate as a means to gain centrally appreciated ends (Hobfoll, 2002; Ferreira et al., 2010; Ferreira & Coetzee, 2010). This broad definition forms a part of a number of major theoretical perspectives that focus on psychological resources (Hobfoll, 1998; Holahan, Moos, Holahan & Cronkite, 1999). In the careers context, the concept of career meta-competencies is used to refer to individuals’ psychological resources.
Career meta-competencies consist of an assortment of psychological career resources, which include attributes and abilities such as behavioural flexibility, self-knowledge, career orientation consciousness, sense of reason, self-esteem and affective literacy, which enable individuals to be independent learners and hands-on agents in the administration of their own careers (Coetzee, 2008; Hall & Chandler, 2005; Ferreira et al., 2010; Ferreira & Coetzee, 2010). According to Coetzee (2008), more researchers in the field of career development indicate that a superior understanding of individuals’ career meta-competencies (as described by an individual’s set of psychological career resources) with regard to their common employability is essential.
An individual’s career awareness refers to his or her psychological career profile (Coetzee, 2008, p. 10). This is based on Adler’s (1956) explanation of the idea of consciousness. Coetzee (2008, p. 10) describes career consciousness as individuals’ awareness and career-related cognitions, which include perceptions, attentiveness and self-evaluations of their career preferences, attitudes, ideals, skills and behaviours that are understood and identified by individuals as a vital factor in actualising their objectives and experiencing job satisfaction.

Theoretical model

Coetzee (2008) offers a valuable theoretical framework to help individuals recognise the significance of developing their inner career resources and drawing on these psychological resources to improve their individual employability characteristics and abilities. Figure 3.1 illustrates how the different psychological career resources interact.

Career preferences and career values

Individual’s career preferences and career values refer to their exceptional mental picture of the path their career should take that guides their career options (Ferreira et al., 2010; Ferreira & Coetzee, 2010). Individuals’ career preferences and career values are furthermore considered to be the on-going cognitive or theoretical structures forming the foundation of their opinions about their career that indicate the importance of a career to them (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2009). Coetzee (2008) identifies four career preferences based on the career orientation models of Driver and Brousseau (1988) and Derr (1986), in terms of the psychological career resources construct. These include stability/expertise (preference for a stable career), managerial (preference for a career as a manager), creativity/variety (preference of a creative career with plenty of variety) and autonomy/independence (preference of a career where the individual can function independently). Individuals’ career preferences steer their moves, values or ideals on the basis of their enthusiasm for a particular career preference (Brousseau, 1990). An individual can set long-term goals or targets for his or her career, based on his or her career preferences and career values. Career values include the growth/development in the individual’s career and having authority and influence in his or her job (Coetzee, 2008). This means that, in the long run, a person’s career goals may be affected or influenced by the way he or she prefers and values his or her career.
Values incorporate ideas on numerous facets in life, including the self, family, other people, religion and work (Bergh & Theron, 2004). In evaluation practices, the concern of values and attitudes often involves incorporated notions; even interests in occupation and existence are frequently incorporated into values and attitudes (Bergh & Theron, 2004).
As summarised in Table 3.1, the notion of values in the careers context is acknowledged by Super (1970) who identified a range of work values.
According to Sager (1999), values imitate an individual’s assessment of the significance of actions and job characteristics. Rokeach (1973) defines values as lasting cognitive demonstrations and conversations of desire. According to this view, values are less complicated than interests, and interests materialise from values.
Values are ideas, opinions or philosophies that individuals deem to be important. Values outline the basis of individuals’ interests (Hendrix, 1990). The most generally acknowledged definition of values can be found in the prominent works of Rokeach (1973), who defines values as principles against which individuals evaluate their own behaviours and those of others (Brown, 2007). Super (1990), Stebalus and Brown (2001) and Leong (1991), recognise values as significant determinants of an assortment of aspects of occupational growth, career selection and career fulfilment and propositions that have received wide support (Brown, 2007).
According to Smith and Campbell (2008), values also efficiently differentiate professional environments in that expected variation in value patterns is evident when individuals are grouped according to profession. This means that individuals who practise the same profession probably have more or less the same set of values, which will direct their career decision-making process.
An individual’s preference can be influenced by his or her values and what he or she regards as important. It is therefore necessary to understand the concept of value in order to better understand the concept of preference.

Career drivers

Career drivers (people’s sense of career purpose, career directedness and career-venturing attitude) are the attitudes that energise people and motivate them to experiment with career and employment possibilities on the basis of their viewpoints of the possible selves they could become or the possible working roles they could experience (Coetzee, 2008). In terms of career drivers, the concept of career purpose can be clarified as an individual’s sense of being enthusiastic about his or her career (Coetzee, 2008; Ferreira et al., 2010; Ferreira, 2009; Ferreira & Coetzee, 2010). A sense of purpose is based on individuals’ self-confidence and personal belief, which they are able to fulfil through their career goals.
The concept of career directedness is defined as a person’s sense of clarity on future career guidelines and targets as well as the precision in terms of where and how support will be found for achieving his or her career targets or finding fresh career opportunities (Coetzee, 2008). In essence, this means that individuals show career directedness once clear goals or targets have been set, and the individual striving to achieve these goals or reach these targets by using his or her strengths and abilities.
The idea of career venturing can be seen as an individual’s eagerness to take risks by investigating innovative and new career opportunities (Ferreira et al., 2010). When an individual identifies career objectives and strives to achieve them, this usually leads to career satisfaction.
According to Heslin (2003), career satisfaction measures the individual’s capacity to believe that his or her personal career advancement is in line with his or her personal goals, values and preferences. Crant (2000) maintains that a person’s character or personality can manipulate the degree to which he or she takes the initiative to engage in career management behaviours and accomplish career or job satisfaction.
According to Smith and Campbell (2008), an aspect of satisfaction is understood when the employee and employer are mutually pleased with the employee’s performance. Satisfaction is thus the degree to which an individual’s desires are met through his or her occupation and the fact that the employer assesses the individual’s performance as satisfying the organisation’s desires.
When individuals seem to be fulfilled in their career, they need assistance in maintaining their feelings of fulfilment. This can be done by developing new skills to help them to do the job to the best of their ability (Ferreira et al., 2010).

Career enablers

Coetzee (2008) acknowledges two constructs associated with the notion of career enablers, which include practical/creative and self/other skills that assist individuals to be more successful in their jobs (Ferreira & Coetzee, 2010). The career enablers incorporate skills such as applying theoretical constructs in a realistic and creative manner in order to focus attention on innovative ways of doing things. Career enablers are regarded as individuals’ convenience skills, such as their practical or inventive skills and self-management and association/relationship skills – in other words, those capabilities that may help individuals to enjoy a successful career path (Coetzee, 2008). Once individuals have developed the skills and knowledge to maintain the feeling of satisfaction as well as the need to develop emotional intelligence, a feeling of harmony is arises in their career (Ferreira et al., 2010).

Career harmonisers

Career harmonisers are the psychological characteristics that operate not only as promoters of flexibility and hardiness but also as controls (because they ensure that the career drivers are in balance so that individuals do not burn themselves out in the process of following and reinventing their careers) (Ferreira & Coetzee, 2010). Coetzee (2008) labels career harmoniser attributes as self-esteem, behavioural adaptability, emotional literacy and social connectivity (the capability to connect with others and create and uphold equally satisfying and encouraging relationships). Self-esteem, behavioural adaptability, emotional literacy and social connectivity have also been related to experiences of subjective career success and happiness (Sinclair, 2009). An individual who has a well-developed psychological career resources profile will be able to engage proactively in career self-management activities that advance his or her job performance and experiences of personal career success in a particular sociocultural environment (Coetzee, 2008; Ebberwein et al., 2004; Ferreira & Coetzee, 2010; Van der Heijde & Van der Heijden, 2006).
Career harmonisers are entrenched in individuals’ emotional intelligence and social connectivity (Coetzee, 2008). According to Emmerling and Cherniss (2003), individuals who are emotionally intelligent are most likely, in a healthier situation, to make use of the motivational charateristics of their emotions. They may be able to focus on exact emotions throughout the development of decisions about their occupation. This will have a motivational consequence on adaptive behaviour by encouraging individuals to think about various affective components when making occupational choices (Ferreira et al., 2010).
Social connectivity, however, can be explained as an individual’s ability to relate to others and create and maintain satisfying and sustaining relationships (Coetzee, 2008). The feelings experienced throughout the career decision-making process and in social relationships in the job are most likely to influence the consciousness of the risks associated with precise career choices, the magnitude and type of self-exploration individuals engage in and how they process information relating to career selection (Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003). Behavioural adaptability can be regarded as an individual’s ability to recognise those trails that are necessary for possible performance and to make the necessary changes to meet their career-related desires (Coetzee, 2008).
Coetzee (2008) suggests that the different characteristics of a person’s psychological profile have to be in a state of equilibrium to allow optimal development of the individual’s psychological career resources. If any one of the components is out of balance, none of the other components can be fully functional and thereby help to self-empower career behaviour (Ferreira et al., 2010). Reasonable and the best possible functioning of the psychological resources is a sign of self-directed career behaviour that is guided within and determined by the person’s career preferences, career values, sense of purpose, career directedness and self-awareness.
This section dealt with the psychological career resources model developed by Coetzee (2008), which will form part of the theoretical framework for this research study. A number of relevant theories will be discussed in the next section.

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Other theoretical models

Schein’s concept of career orientations

Schein’s (1978; 1990) career anchors model is a much respected and significant theory of value. Career anchors are an individual’s occupational self-image, created by his or her awareness of individuality, values, interest, thoughts, capabilities, competencies and occupational knowledge during a secure phase in his or her employment (Bergh & Theron, 2004). Individuals may have one (or more) career anchors they regard as critical, which could influence their career options and results, as well as their functioning in a work situation and their growth in their prospective career (Bergh & Theron, 2004).
Career anchors may influence certain kinds of career facets such as rewards, promotions and acknowledgements, and change as an individual’s career develops throughout his or her life span (Schein, 1993). Schein (1990; 1996) distinguishes between the following career anchors: technical and functional competence, general managerial competence, autonomy, security and stability, entrepreneurial creativity, challenge and lifestyle. Coetzee and Schreuder (2009) conducted a study based on the relationship between psychological career resources and working adults’ career anchors. The results of their study indicated that psychological career resources act as a predictor for working adults’ career anchors.

Fugate, Kinicki and Ashforth’s model of employability

People are currently experiencing generally large self-managed and boundaryless occupations, which include planning with numerous organisations or even industries (Fugate et al., 2004). The result of the increased rate of change, the borders between professions, the borders between organisations and boundaries between life responsibilities are becoming distorted, and individuals are compelled to assume different roles in the organisation (Ashforth, 2001).
Survival in the changing world of work requires employees to constantly handle change – that is, change in themselves and in their career context (Fugate et al., 2004). An individual’s capability and enthusiasm to adjust is critical to career success (Hall, 2002).
The shift towards employability was discussed in chapter 2. According to Fugate et al. (2004), people’s employability comprises dispositional or psychosocial attributes that interact to help them adjust to become accustomed to the numerous occupational-related changes in the current world economy.
Employability is regarded as psychosocial construct representing individual features that encourage adaptive cognition, behaviour and concern and improve the individual-job boundary (Fugate et al., 2004). The responsibility is on the employee to ensure he or she acquires the understanding, skills and abilities required and appreciated by existing and future employers (Fugate et al., 2004). This tie in with the psychological career resources model of Coetzee (2008) because of the fact that individuals need to develop and gain new skills to ensure career success.
Employability is described as a structure of work-detailed, dynamic adaptability that allows employees to recognise and understand their career prospects (Fugate et al., 2004).
Employability makes the movement between jobs and organisations (within and between) possible. Even though employability does not guarantee definite employment, Fugate et al. (2004) argue that it does improve a person’s probability of being employed. According to Chan (2000), a person will be regarded as employable to the degree he or she can confer features successfully to negotiate demands. The main focal point is on individual-concentrated factors, which include career identity, personal adaptability and social and human capital, the reason being that individuals have almost no say in employers’ employment measures, such as job-specific skills or the relevant years or experience required (Fugate et al., 2004).
According to Fugate et al. (2004) and McArdle et al. (2007), employability includes the following three separate, but interrelated psychosocial attributes:
(a) Adaptability
The motivation and flexibility to adjust behaviours, reactions and opinions in response to environmental difficulties can be defined as adaptability (Fugate et al., 2004). According to Hall (2004), the key to success in today’s uncertain and changing world of work is adaptability. Savickas (1997) indicates that plan-fullness, a willingness to survive and the motivation to investigate oneself and one’s situation can be associated with adaptability. Individuals who manifest adaptability tend to be less insecure and uncertain and are at ease in fresh circumstances and across organisational limitations (McArdle et al., 2007). Included in the element of adaptability is the construct of realistic behaviour. According to Siebert et al. (1999) and Bateman and Crant (1993), realistic individuals are capable of influencing environmental transformation, remaining moderately without hindrance by situational limitations. Recognising and acting on changes, an outlook of power, determination, self-efficacy, self-direction, managing and information seeking can be associated with realistic personality qualities (Bateman & Crant, 1993).
(b) Career identity
Career identity signifies the manner in which individuals describe themselves in the occupational framework, and can be regarded as a “cognitive compass” which is used to navigate the way through career prospects (Fugate et al., 2004). Career identity imitates the “knowing why” competencies recognised by Defillippi and Arthur (1994). “Knowing-why” competencies include features such as career drive, own meaning and individual values (McArdle et al., 2007). According to McGreevy (2003), the purpose of an “internal career compass” has turned out to be significantly essential in providing direction, particularly when the person discovers himself or herself outside of the limitations of an organisation employing individuals. Hall, Briscoe, and Kram (1997) recommend that in the career environment which is in turmoil, the individual’s needs should be associated with an occupation or institute, but as an alternative representing an individual’s delicate values, inspirations and broader career happiness.
(c) Human and social capital
The final aspect of the employability model includes human and social capital. Individual variables (schooling, work understanding, guidance, ability and familiarity) may affect an individual’s career progress, which in turn refers to human capital (McArdle et al., 2007). Human capital includes the “knowing-how” competencies sketched by Defillippi and Arthur (1994). “Knowing how” competencies include a career-related understanding and abilities constructed by means of work-related knowledge and specialised growth behaviour (McArdle et al., 2007). By exploring continuous learning, individuals are able to build up their human capital, which means enhancing their employability.
Defillippi and Arthur (1994) suggest that the “knowing whom” competencies relating to recognised and informal career-related associations, refer to the social capital which is regarded as the interpersonal feature of employability. Some pragmatic work has confirmed that in order to determine an individual’s self-perception it is necessary to consult his or her interpersonal links (Eby et al., 2003) and provide access to career-related information and resources (Siebert, Kraimer & Linden, 2001). Social systems can furthermore be a foundation for social support, serving to improve the negative consequences of demanding situations, such as being without a job (McKee-Rayn, Song, Wanberg & Kinicki, 2005).
These three dimensions of employability can be related to the psychological career resource model (Coetzee, 2008). The adaptability dimension seems to underscore the career preference variable where an individual establishes feelings of stability and independence by adapting to the organisational environment in which he or she finds himself or herself.
The career identity dimension seems to be associated with the variable career drivers of the psychological career resources model (Coetzee, 2008) because the individual establishes a sense of career purpose, career directedness and happiness.
The human and social capital dimensions seem to be associated with the construct of career enablers, because the individual endeavours to acquire practical/creative skills as well as self/other skills by interacting with other colleagues and resources to gain this knowledge. The skills and knowledge acquired by individuals will enable them to go forward in their career and in turn foster feelings of career purpose in the indivdual.

Hammer’s coping resources model

In the context of this study, the construct “coping resources” is presented as derived from the theoretical framework developed by Hammer (1988). It is necessary to include coping resources, because coping mechanisms can help individuals to manage and improve unpleasant experiences, as well as reduce the effects of stressful feelings caused by unpleasant experiences (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2011). Hammer (1988) describes coping resources as those psychological capacities inherent in individuals that enable them to handle stressors (such as those experienced during unemployment and career transitions) more effectively, to experience fewer or less intense symptoms on exposure to a stressor or to recover more quickly from exposure (Coetzee & Esterhuizen, 2010).
The resource domains outlined in Hammer’s (1988) theoretical framework of coping resources were established on the basis of an extensive literature review, including his experience in conducting stress programmes and in working with individual client. The construct of coping resources refers to a range of psychological coping capacities as outlined in Table 3.2.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Declaration
Abstract / Summary
Key terms
Table of contents
CHAPTER 1: SCIENTIFIC OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH
1.1 BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE FOR THE RESEARCH
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.3 AIMS OF THE RESEARCH
1.4 STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE
1.5 THE RESEARCH MODEL
1.6 PARADIGMS PERSPECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH
1.7 RESEARCH DESIGN
1.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1.9 CHAPTER LAYOUT
1.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER 2: META-THEORETICAL CONTEXT OF THE STUDY: INDIVIDUAL CAREER BEHAVIOUR AND RETENTION IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY WORLD OF WORK
2.1 WORK AND CAREERS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
2.2 INDIVIDUALS AS CAREER AGENTS
2.3 RETENTION CHALLENGES FOR ORGANISATIONS
2.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3: PSYCHOLOGICAL CAREER META-COMPETENCIES
3.1 PSCYHOLOGICAL CAREER RESOURCES
3.2 CAREER ADAPTABILITY
3.3 HARDINESS
3.4 IMPLICATION FOR TALENT RETENTION
3.5 THEORETICAL INTEGRATION
3.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4: RETENTION-RELATED DISPOSITIONS
4.1 JOB EMBEDDEDNESS
4.2 ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT
4.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR TALENT RETENTION
4.4 THEORETICAL IMPLICATION
4.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5: THE EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 DETERMINATION AND DECSRIPTION OF THE SAMPLE
5.3 CHOOSING AND MOTIVATING THE PSYCHOMETRIC BATTERY
5.4 DATA COLLECTION
5.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
5.6 FORMULATION OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
5.7 DATA ANALASIS
5.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH RESULTS
6.1 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
6.2 CORRELATIONAL STATISTICS
6.3 INFERENTIAL (MULTIVARIATE) STATISTICAL ANALYSES
6.4 INTEGRATION AND DISCUSSION
6.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS
7.1 CONCLUSIONS
7.2 LIMITATIONS
7.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
7.4 EVALUATION OF THE STUDY
7.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
RESEARCH ARTICLE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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