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CHAPTER TWO ADDRESSING THE BARRIERS TO READING COMPREHENSION DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNERS IN A TOWNSHIP SECONDARY SCHOOL: A LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
Reading is a highly complex act that must be learned. Bernhardt (1998:9) holds the view that reading is not a single skill but a combination of many skills and processes in which a reader interacts with print to derive both meaning and pleasure from the written words. Inability to read hampers the individual=s overall learning and daily functioning in a literate society. Teaching learners to read with comprehension is a prerequisite to successful learning at school. Burns, Roe and Ross (1992:4) maintain that learners who cannot see any advantage in learning to read will not be motivated to learn either. Learning to read takes effort, and learners who see the value of reading in their personal activities will be more likely to work hard than those who fail to see the benefits.
In this chapter the focus will be on the following; the development of the reading comprehension skills of secondary school learners, reading comprehension problems experienced by secondary school learners, reading comprehension in the second language as the language of learning and teaching, reading support in the secondary schools and the use of the imaging technique as learning support to improve the reading comprehension of learners in a township secondary school.
READING COMPREHENSION
Definition of reading comprehension
According to Richeck et al. (1983:7), reading is defined as an ability to gather meaning from printed symbols. To some later theorists however, recognizing words is the essential ingredient, others stress literal comprehension of printed words, sentences and paragraphs, and others emphasize the important role of inference, prediction and judgement in reading.
Taverner (1990:1) views reading as something more than reading of black marks upon a page: it is for meaning and one which requires the reader to be an active participant. He further states that reading takes pupils beyond first hand experience: it enables them to project themselves into unfamiliar environments, times and cultures, to gain sympathetic understanding for other ways of life and to experience joy and sadness vicariously.
According to Robeck and Wallace (1990:27), reading is a process of translating signs and symbols into meanings and incorporating the new information into existing cognitive and affective structures.
To Irwin (1991:8), comprehension can be seen as the process of using one=s own prior experiences and the writer=s cues to infer the author=s intended meaning.
McNeil (1992:16) defines reading comprehension as a process of making sense out of text. Reading comprehension is a process of using one=s existing knowledge (schemata) to interpret text in order to construe meaning.
Alley (1994:5) defines reading literacy as the ability to understand and use those written language forms that are required by society and/or valued by the individual. The category of language forms Arequired by society@ refers to those kinds of literacy tasks which are needed to cope with the business of living in an organized society reading notices, direction maps, graphs etc. The latter part of the definition allows for the inclusion of leisure reading, but as less often required for survival in society. Le Roux (1993:152) points out that (Cummins 1981:21) postulated that colloquial language known as Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) consists of the Avisible@ aspects of language such as pronunciation, basic vocabulary and grammar, which allow pupils to converse fluently in undemanding every day situation. However BICS alone are not sufficient for academic success. This definition would indicate that the reader=s skill of reading comprehension is still on the basic interpersonal communication level BICS of processing reading information.
Jackson and Coltheart (2001:11) take reading to be a cognitive activity that is accomplished by a mental information – processing system that is made up of a number of distinct processing subsystems. The nature and functioning of this mental information-processing system is expected to change as a reader becomes more practised and skilled and acquires new knowledge. According to this definition the development of reading skills would also be important at the higher level of thinking where academic work can be processed. (Cummins 1981:21) defines Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) as the proficiency needed to understand academic concepts and to perform the higher cognitive operations that are required to achieve in school.
The above mentioned definitions of reading comprehension incorporate concepts such as schemata, existing knowledge, cognitive process, social process, literacy, vocabulary knowledge and active participation of the reader when interacting with the text to generate meaning on what he/she is reading about. Other definitions consider the purpose of the reader and the context within which the reader is functioning. These definitions indicate that reading comprehension skills equip the reader with basic interpersonal communication skills BICS in order to function easily in his or her society as well as higher cognitive academic language proficiency CALP skills. Hence no single definition of reading comprehension is fully adequate.
Development of reading comprehension skills of secondary school learners
The development of reading skills generally begins from preschool years and continues up to higher education level. Gunning (2000:12-17) identified the following five stages of reading development:
Stage One. Emergent literacy (Birth to five years)
Stage Two. Early reading (Kindergarten and first grade
Stage Three. Growing independence (Grades two and three)
Stage Four. Reading to learn (Grade four through to Grade six)
Stage Five. Abstract reading (Grade seven and up)
Gunning (2000:16) maintains that at Stage Five (Grade seven and up) much of the school learning is conveyed by texts that are longer, more complex, and more abstract. Reading interests are more varied and individualized. This indicates that, in developing reading comprehension skills, the learners= age and developmental stage need to be taken into account.
Recent theories on reading comprehension skills advocate metacognition, prior knowledge and active interaction of the reader with the text to achieve meaning or comprehension. The development of reading comprehension skills initially aims at equipping the learners with basic communication skills in order to function adequately in their society. At this level reading is seen as a communication mode. Bouwer (1989:116) maintains that readers gain access to knowledge and world incidents by means of reading books, magazines and newspapers, watching TV, surfing the internet etc. The early development of reading comprehension skills may even begin before formal learning commences at school. The primary schools play an important role in developing basic interpersonal communication skills in the learners in both spoken and written media.
Reading comprehension skills need to be taught. Danielson and La Bonty (1994:65) maintain that instruction in comprehension occupies less than one percent of instructional time in the classroom. They further mention that educators should develop in their learners a thorough understanding of what reading comprehension means, how it can be monitored and what can be done when comprehension fails to occur (Danielson and La Bonty 1994:65). Samuels and Farstrap (1992:188) also hold the view that instruction in reading comprehension involves giving students opportunities to activate their background knowledge, discover information, and construct new understanding.
Current theories on reading comprehension advocate the importance of prior knowledge, that is, the background information that a reader brings to the text. Gunning (2000:204) holds the view that, because comprehension involves relating the unknown to the known, it is important that students become aware of what they know about a subject. Before students read a selection, the teacher should activate students= prior knowledge through questioning. By so doing, the educator will be supporting the development of reading comprehension skills in learners.
The development of reading comprehension skills does not necessarily mean the increase of word knowledge or vocabulary. Aaron and Joshi (1992:53) hold the view that simply increasing the reader=s vocabulary size does not by itself automatically guarantee a corresponding improvement in comprehension of sentences and text. Sentences and texts require that the reader go beyond the lexical information present on the printed page. This indicates that reading comprehension skills need to develop towards a higher level of thinking.
Secondary school learners are at the stage where higher levels of reading comprehension skill need to be introduced. According to Bouwer (189:116), reading does not only keep people in touch with their environment, but it also promotes personal development. It enriches vocabulary and logical thinking. Taverner (1990:4) maintains that reading can also be used as a means of learning. Reading constantly subjects the reader=s mind to new information requiring him/her to adjust his/her thinking.
This indicates that the learner needs to develop higher order thinking skills for academic learning. Bouwer (1989:116) also mentions that academic progress is frequently the result of reading. Learners use their reading skills to improve their study skills, manage their time, take notes, read with comprehension and to learn to read with analysis of the text in order to form their own interpretations and views. The latter reading comprehension skill reflects CALP which is characterised by advanced vocabulary, high reading speed, logical, critical reading as well as creative reading.
The demands and challenges in the development of reading comprehension skills of secondary school learners, especially of township secondary school learners, need to be contemplated with reference to the above.
Demands and challenges in the development of reading comprehension skills of township secondary school learners
In most secondary schools, learners are generally found who experience reading comprehension difficulty. However, it is often taken for granted by teachers that, at this level, learners are able to read with comprehension and little is done to support those who aren=t. Learners who fail to read with comprehension are often left only with an option of using a dictionary to enhance comprehension. In township secondary school, the standard of reading comprehension might be low for various reasons!
A strong challenge in the development of reading comprehension skills of township secondary school learners is contained in their scholastic background. The scholastic background of most township secondary school learners is often characterised by poor performance. Often the reading comprehension level with which they enter the secondary school, is not yet at the basic level of interpersonal communication. These learners can be referred to as high-risk learners in the development of reading comprehension skills at the higher levels, especially if such skills will not be taught explicitly during Grade 8.
Taverner (1990:5) holds the view that reading is more than seeing words clearly, more than pronouncing words correctly, more than recognizing the meaning of isolated words. Reading requires one to think, feel and imagine. Effective reading is purposeful. This emphasizes yet again that the development of reading comprehension skills should reach a level where the learner functions at the higher levels of thinking. Secondary school learners need to be assisted to begin to develop their cognitive academic language proficiency in order to meet the demands of further and higher education.
The demands and challenges that face educators and learners in township secondary schools frequently include a lack of resources. Lack of books such as fiction, non-fiction and reference books (encyclopaedias and dictionaries) puts the sc
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION, PROBLEM FORMULATION, AIM OF RESEARCH, RESEARCH STATEMENT, CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS, RESEARCH DESIGN AND RESEARCH PROGRAMME
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 PROBLEM FORMULATION
1.3 AIM OF RESEARCH
1.4 ASSUMPTIONS
1.5 RESEARCH STATEMENT
1.6 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS
1.7 RESEARCH DESIGN
1.8 RESEARCH PROGRAMME
CHAPTER TWO ADDRESSING THE BARRIERS TO READING COMPREHENSION DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNERS IN A TOWNSHIP SECONDARY SCHOOL: A LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION.
2.2 READING COMPREHENSION
2.3 READING COMPREHENSION PROBLEMS
2.4 COMPREHENSION OF TEXT IN THE SECOND LANGUAGE
2.5 LEARNING SUPPORT FOR READING COMPREHENSION DEVELOPMENT IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL
2.6 IMAGING FOR READING COMPREHENSION
CHAPTER THREE EMPIRICAL EXAMINATION AND ADAPTATION OF THE IMAGING TECHNIQUE AS A SUPPORT IN DEVELOPING READING COMPREHENSION SKILLS OF TOWNSHIP SECONDARY SCHOOL LEARNERS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 RESEARCH PLAN
3.3 RESULTS AND FINDINGS
3.4 DISCUSSION
3.5 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER FOUR SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 SUMMARY
4.3 CONCLUSIONS
4.4 LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH
4.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
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