Application of modern technology in music instruction

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CHAPTER TWO APPLICATIONS OF MODERN TECHNOLOGY IN MUSIC INSTRUCTION

 INTRODUCTION

This section seeks to present and discuss issues concerning the place, functionality and utilisation of modern technology in the instruction of music. The discussion presents an overview of the development of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) as it relates to musical instrument instruction with the nyunga nyunga mbira instrument as a particular focal point for study. Some strategies from practising mbira instructors, researchers and writers associated with CAI are brought under the spotlight with intent to analyse and articulate relevant matters and viewpoints. In this chapter ideas gleaned from selected authors, proponents and advocates of modern technology are critiqued in order to inform the discourse. To facilitate organisation, discussion and flow of ideas the chapter includes analyses of transcriptions, models of notation and analysis in some selected mbira tunes where necessary, so as to examine the use of modern technology in the instruction of mbira music. The study examines how proponents of modern music technology embrace African musical instruments, especially relating to modalities of instruction.
Finally, the chapter articulates some practical implications regarding the use of modern technology and realities intertwined with CAI as a model for instructional design for the mbira music instrument at tertiary level. The term ‘computer(s)’ makes reference to different types of computers in use from a generic viewpoint. On a more specific note, the Apple Macintosh and personal computers (PC Microsoft), desktops, laptops, palmtops, tablets, MacBooks, Notebooks, iPads and their various versions, all constitute computers. CAI in this study is considered also from the point of view of using software packages and their compliant operating systems regardless of year of manufacture, old/new version of software. The basic requirements are the fundamental features required of a computer, thus: the ability to input, compute, and display output through visual and audio file formats and also provide assistance to those instructed in musical skills through direct and/or indirect manipulation of the computer. The use of computers in this study enables the research to take place. There is not any one particular software package that stands above the rest; even though Sibelius 7 is used for this research it is just a question of its availability. Any notation software package can be used with the same results expected at the end. If time permitted one would have had to try all stages of the research with the use of perhaps two or three software packages. However, the time and resources for the research do not allow for such an approach.

 THE INCEPTION OF THE COMPUTER

The use of computers has had a strong bearing on the manner in which people conduct business be it in commerce, industry or education, in particular teaching and learning. The utilisation of CAI is primarily designed to enhance a learner-centred approach. This approach insists on meeting the needs of the one under tuition, and to that effect Lorton, Killiam and Kuhn (1975:877) argue that “[m]usic instruction demands a highly individualised approach; computer-assisted instruction has developed out of efforts to meet this demand.” The above view is quite critical. When meeting individual needs of the students, particular care should be placed on how the subject matter is presented. In consideration of the implementation of CAI regardless of aims and objectives thereof, the points raised by the above authors inform this research in that meeting the needs of students is central to this study. I also agree with their view that the use of sound in CAI is a fundamental component, however, visual graphics also play an important function to aid concept formation. It is also significant to mention that participating students need to have a personal experience to fulfil the purpose of instruction and learning. Student records is another key feature of this study; to maintain comprehensive progress records of the research outcomes enables one to come up with an appropriate analysis of information gathered and that is the basis of any given research endeavour. Webster and Hickey (2006:380) make the following observations on the prologue and the implementation of CAI, alleging that:
. . . [i]t is fair to say that, until most recently, the history of music technology has not been driven by any interest in musical development and learning with its attendant literature. Instead, music technology’s growth has been guided by: (1) practical needs in music production (music notation, sound recording and reproduction); (2) certain technical achievements in hardware (faster, smaller, and cheaper processors, laser disc technology); and (3) the Internet as a medium of communication. That said, computer-assisted instruction has always been a part of the history of music technology and certain achievements in the development of software particularly hold promise for linkages to the development literature.
Conceivably the above view is informed by the fact that the computer is primarily developed to meet demands that perhaps have nothing to do with music instruction. However, this study does not detail the historical development of CAI because that does not play a critical part in the thesis. One important consideration for CAI is that it brings new platforms for instruction as opposed to oral traditions and/or pen and paper. Both theory and practice of music have gleaned ideas from the use of a computer. Even if computer usage may have come at a later date into music education for the users, it may be an opportunity to engage in research to discover, analyse and implement ideas generated in the field through CAI. What is substantially factual is that music is one of the areas of
study that has become intimately connected with computer-assisted instruction, largely due to the existence of the Internet, understood as a global network of interconnected computers that can be accessed or visited at the click of a mouse button and the use of a world wide web address e.g. (www.aes.org).
Although parents choose schools for their children’s educational development, particularly in music education it should be noted that the computer has revolutionised the landscape of music instruction the world over. The above view surely puts the parents and teachers into a situation where they have an obligation to advance the opportunity to broaden the students musically. It is a matter of concern for the parents and teachers to eagerly support the use of computers in music education, although some of them do not have personal expertise to use computers. In a different view this is not a challenge because one does not need to have personal experience to advance a good cause, especially on the part of the parent.
Considering that African society and the world over, has people who have never been to school, it is not uncommon for the same parents to do their best to send their children to school, although some are adamantly ignorant. As for teachers it is just a question of personal determination that one can be aware of what needs to be done through computer usage. As a researcher, my first encounter with computers was in 1994 at the age of 28 when I enrolled at university as an undergraduate student. The computers did not offer any musical computer-assisted instructional platform. The computer-assisted platform crossed my path in 2007 at the age of 41 as I enrolled for the Masters degree in Music at the University of Pretoria (South Africa). However, Zimbabwe has since experienced phenomenal growth in computer education as many schools have introduced the subject at primary and secondary schools. However, most of the schools do not have the software packages to facilitate CAI in many learning activities, including music education. Even though they do not deal with music education it is encouraging to see that our students have had some hands-on experience with computers – a theme explored in more detail in the ensuing chapters of this thesis.

 COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION FOR MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

It is important to understand computer-assisted instruction in general and specifically the way it relates to music tuition. According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2014), computer-assisted instruction enables an instructor to present subject matter to students using a computer as a platform. The Free Dictionary (2014) indicates that computer-assisted instruction refers to the process that capitalises on the computer as a teaching resource in order to present subject matter, further affording students opportunities to interact with the computer in real time. In this study the computer plays a critical and central role in providing the core of the instructional approach to the teaching of the instrument under study. Although, to an extent, CAI relates well to computer-assisted learning (CAL), the study does not intend to explore the latter. Instead the study focuses on CAI and other related ancillary electronic devices required to conduct CAI. The study embraces the use of computers to execute instruction or tuition of the nyunga nyunga mbira. Other devices that could be used with the computer in CAI serve a supporting role, hence the computer is the central focal point for CAI. Some of the equipment that falls under the supportive domain include monitor, speakers, microphones, amplifier, overhead projector, headphones, smart board, and other relevant portable and immovable visual and audio devices.
It is important at this stage to note that all the supportive equipment required in this study may not be exhaustible or be equated to CAI, especially in view of the fact that some of it may be done away with, particularly where conditions do not permit its use. For example, in some instances, students may be required to work as individuals and leave out the group collaborative approach; in this case the loud monitor speakers may be done away with in order to promote personal involvement with the use of headphones. The study assumes that the four main components of the computer are keyboard, monitor, central processing unit and mouse and these make up the core of CAI. The study does not focus on the operational description of the computer hence the functionality of the above mentioned core components of the computer is not delved into or discussed in much detail. The actual usage and the outcomes of CAI are the most important aspects of this study.
In discussing CAI and its use in music tuition it is necessary for this study to provide an overview of the history and development of CAI in music instruction, even though instruction of music has, until recently, largely been associated with human beings as the major facilitators of the learning process. It is an accepted and reasonable idea that the African traditional school relies on teacher-student interaction to effect concept formation on subject matter. Through concerted research from the late 1960s, as well as in more recent times, the world has seen growth in the use of computers in many areas to include music in the arts, humanities, commerce and science. This chapter explores the impact of the inception of the modern technology in as far as the application of the computer has revolutionised the models of instruction in music (Lister, Dovey, Giddings, Grant, and Kelly 2009).
Whereas others are struggling to understand the operational principles of computers, some have abdicated from using this technology due to a variety of reasons as discussed later in subsequent chapters. Some people are conservative. They stick to the traditional models of instruction, choosing to maintain the status quo, while others move along with the modern trend of using computer instruction for music. Even though the advent of the computer revolution has been received with a myriad of mixed views, the study does not focus on controversies or try to resolve such matters of debate. Rather the thrust of the discourse is to take advantage of the computer to instruct an indigenous traditional instrument that is not conventionally associated with modern technology.
The term ‘modern technology’ is a result of the inventions made by people across the world in order to solve specific challenges (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2016). Historically, CAI came into use in the 1960s in Europe and the United States of America with the advent of computers, even though at the time costs were generally high in terms of purchasing and maintenance (Nicholle, 2016). Eddins (1981:7) mentions that the history of CAI shows that during the years 1967-1969 (1969 and 1971) research was conducted in the US to develop computers for instrumental musicians as part of modern technology. The early years of the inception of computers brought a lot of uncertainty to the intended users. The majority of the uncertainty arose from the fact that the computer was far from the reach of the majority of people. Nicholle (2016) states that Hewlett Packard 9100A and 9800 series first desktop computers cost $5 000-00 (today $33 000-00); these were not affordable to ordinary individuals. Universities were the first to embrace computers and CAI, mostly for research and development purposes. This study does not seek to address the scenario alluded to or make the reader appreciate the availability or unavailability of the computer to the people. However, institutions of higher education, mostly universities in developed nations, were quick to rise to the need of using computers in conducting research and instruction in music. It is from that stand point that this thesis explores the use of computers with students at a university in as far as the instruction of the nyunga nyunga mbira is concerned. This research is partly premised on the assumption that most university music departments have the potential to stock, run and maintain computer-assisted platforms including some that are posted on the Internet. The President of Zimbabwe and the First Lady have donated computers at some colleges and universities in Zimbabwe. I witnessed in 2004 a computer laboratory that was opened at MSU and furnished with computers connected to the Internet, courtesy of a donation by the First Lady Dr. Grace Mugabe. Again the President of Zimbabwe announced another donation of computers by the First Lady at MSU as documented in the 2011 10th graduation supplement. Like other universities since 2011, MSU has increased the procurement of computers for use in research, teaching and administrative work (Dandira, 2016). Notably, the University of Zimbabwe has, through the Department of Teacher Education (DTE), embraced the use of Finale Notepad in music education and this has been adopted by many of its Associate Teachers Colleges in Zimbabwe; about 10 of them in total (Matiure, 2014).

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PEDAGOGY OF INDIGENOUS MUSIC AND THE NYUNGA NYUNGA MBIRA

Instruction of the nyunga nyunga mbira has attracted quite a host of researchers from Africa and as far afield as Europe and the United States of America. Various methodologies to facilitate the instruction of the nyunga nyunga mbira in institutions of higher education, whether human or computer-assisted, have not been consistently documented by the people who claim to be the owners or culture bearers of the instrument. However, modern technology has revolutionised the general view on methods of instruction, the instrument and its sound production. In this thesis ‘conservatives’ are the people that hold onto the traditional modes of instruction, owing to perhaps their choice not to comply with the trends of the computer age. The same people try by all means necessary to maintain undiluted African indigenous knowledge systems around the instrument. Reference to indigenous mbira music in this discourse is made to the performances of the nyunga nyunga mbira instrument strictly without the aid of modern technology. In the matter alluded to in the above discussion, the endeavour is to preserve the practices associated with the mbira in terms of performance, through indigenous methods only.
The main mode of instruction in the traditional indigenous approach relies on oral/aural skills where the teaching is informal even though it produces good performers with the passage of time. The aspiring mbira player has to deliberately choose to come under the experienced performer/mentor and observe him/her whenever an opportunity is available to learn. Such an opportunity could be a few moments when the mentor takes a break, or when there are no serious chores to attend to, thus the student can put his/her hands onto the mentor’s mbira. Some of the skilled performers would traditionally not have much time to instruct the apprentice because they are busy with their performances most of the time. Hence the mentees have to make personal efforts to observe their mentor at all times and then implement the ideas later. The traditional indigenous model is commonly conducted with mentees relying more on the mentor’s instrument for instruction. Until the aspiring mbira player obtains his/her own instrument, conceptualisation of the playing techniques develops slowly. Once an apprentice gets an instrument of their own, the opportunity to imitate their mentor becomes more meaningful.

Chapter One The outline of the study
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background to the study
1.3 Theoretical framework
1.4 Statement of the Problem
1.5 Research questions
1.6 Objective of the study
1.7 Location of the study
1.8 Value of the research
1.9 Ethical considerations
1.10 Assumptions
1.11 Delimitations
1.12 Definitions of terms
1.13 Overview of the thesis
1.14 Conclusion
Chapter Two Application of modern technology in music instruction
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The inception of the computer
2.3 Computer-assisted instruction for musical instruments
2.4 Pedagogy of indigenous music and the nyunga nyunga mbira
2.5 Instrumental practice and music technology resources
2.6 Modern technology and indigenous music instruments
2.7 The global view and uptake of music technology resources in music instruction
2.8 Musical applications of computers
2.9 Implications of modern technology for Zimbabwe
2.10 Possible merits and drawbacks of computer technology
2.11 Conclusion
Chapter Three Research design and methodology
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research design
3.3 Methodology
3.4 Action research
3.5 Teaching the nyunga nyunga mbira
3.6 Research methods
3.7 Population
3.7.1 Sampling procedures
3.8 Data analysis procedures
3.9 Conclusion
Chapter Four Contexts of the nyunga nyunga mbira
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Beliefs on the mbira instrument
4.3 The primary school music curriculum
4.4 The secondary school context
4.5 Nyunga nyunga mbira in colleges of music
4.6 Primary Teachers Colleges
4.7 Secondary Teachers Colleges
4.8 The nyunga nyunga mbira at university
4.9 The nyunga nyunga in the unformed forces of Zimbabwe
4.10 The philosophy of nyunga nyunga mbira
4.11 Context and content analysis of nyunga nyunga tunes
4.12 Challenges and proposals with nyunga nyunga mbira
4.13 Impact of modern technology on the nyunga nyunga mbira
4.14 Conclusion
Chapter Five Data presentation, discussion and analysis
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Computer-assisted instruction and nyunga nyunga
5.3 Justification to the teaching of nyunga nyunga through CAI
5.4 Time allocation for the teaching of the nyunga nyunga mbira instrument
5.5 Implementation of multimedia in teaching/learning of the nyunga nyunga
5.6 Impressions about nyunga nyunga mbira after this practical course
5.7 Evaluation of the computer-assisted method
5.8 Conclusion
Chapter Six Findings, conclusions and recommendations
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Why instruct nyunga nyunga using computer-assisted instruction?
6.3 How efficient is computer-assisted instruction in teaching the nyunga nyunga mbira?136
6.4 Musical outcomes of computer-assistance in teaching the mbira to first-timers?
6.5 Merits and demerits of teaching the nyunga nyunga through the CAI?
6.6 Cognitive theory of multimedia instruction in the instruction of the nyunga nyunga . 142
6.7 Applying cognitive load theory in in the teaching of the nyunga nyunga using CAI . 143
6.8 The findings from the research
6.9 Recommendations for dissemination of this research
6.10 Recommendations for further research
6.11 Conclusions
References
Appendices
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