The relationship between the emergent strategic orientation of companies and strategic training

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CYNEFIN DYNAMICS

The manner in which executives and managers make sense of the factors which are present in the ordered and un-ordered domains of the external and internal strategic environment of companies determine the decisions that are made regarding the revision and amendment of the current strategic orientation of the company. The amendment of the current strategic orientation of the company is made possible by a phenomenon known as Cynefin dynamics. Cynefin dynamics enable companies to progress between the different domains. The emergent strategic orientation indicates the manner in which the company needs to progress between different domains or the type of Cynefin dynamics which is necessary to ensure the continued competitiveness of the company.
Cynefin dynamics explains why the amendment of the strategic orientation of companies gives rise to the development of strategic training needs. Executives and managers should take the nature and scope of the various domains into consideration when they progress from one domain to another to be able to manage effectively. However, the nature and scope of each of the ordered and unordered domains pose unique challenges to executives, managers and employees and necessitate a training process that addresses the strategic training needs of these three groups of individuals in each of the domains. This also explains why strategic training must take place on a continuing basis. Kurtz and Snowden (2003:475-479) identify ten possible movements in terms of which companies can progress between different domains. These movements are illustrated in Figure 2.2 Cynefin dynamics and Figure 2.3 Cynefin dynamics in the chaos domain.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRATEGIC DOMAINS AND

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT The presence of a variety of strategic domains and the challenges that each of these domains pose to executives and managers confirm the importance of knowledge management tools and techniques which are aimed at employees on operational levels but also at executives and managers on strategic levels in companies. An environment should therefore be created on both an operational as well as a strategic level where knowledge can be created, codified, shared, organised and ultimately applied in order to review the current strategic orientation of the company and to amend it if necessary. Training and strategic training in particular is a knowledge management technique that can be used by companies to bring about knowledge processes at a strategic level and specifically in terms of the emergent strategic orientation of companies. The executives and managers involved in strategic processes must be empowered and prepared through strategic training to manage within each of the identified domains currently and in future. Although each of the domains is characterised by a unique nature and scope, it is especially the dynamics present between domains that will probably pose the biggest challenge to the managerial abilities of executives and managers.
These dynamics require that executives and managers should not only have the skills to effectively manage companies in the domains, but also between domains. A cyclical relationship should exist between the strategic processes of the company and the training processes used by the company to train executives and managers involved in strategic processes. Furthermore, a cyclical relationship will ensure that strategic processes and training processes are aligned and that the nature and scope of strategic training and the strategic processes of the company are amended accordingly. The cyclical relationship between strategic processes and strategic training ensures that knowledge processes which are conducted on a strategic level are effective (knowledge can be applied in the company) and relevant (knowledge is aligned with strategic the strategic orientation of the company).

THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE CURRICULA

The nature and scope of the curricula or instructional plan according to which the training of executives, managers and employees is made possible usually flow from the responsibilities of the executives, managers and employees as set out in a particular job description. The curricula therefore provide an indication of the training which are offered to executives, managers and employees and thus of the learning that will occur as a result of the training process. In the case of employees, the curricula focus mainly on the execution of knowledge processes in order to result in an increase in the task related skills of employees. Van Dyk et al. (2001:86) explain: “Because members at lower levels of the organisation work more with people (as one of the factors of production) than top management, it is essential that these members receive a greater measure of training in leadership behaviour, team building, and group utilisation (job content training”). However, in the case of executives and managers the curricula must focus on the execution of knowledge processes in order to result in an increase in managerial skills including the ability to formulate and implement the strategic orientation of the company. Van Dyk et al. (2001:86) explain: “Conversely, top management has a larger management task than the middle and lower levels and, therefore, the relationship between management skills and leadership skills is reversed, although the job content training at all levels remains practically the same.” [See Figure 3.1].

THE EFFECTIVENESS AND RELEVANCE OF TRAINING

The effectiveness and relevance of training should be evaluated in order to ascertain whether learning has occurred and thus the value of training processes for the company. The value of training is indicated in order to justify the investment of resources by the company in the training of employees. Malone (2003:24) explains: “Evaluation is the assessment of the total value of a training course in behavioural and financial terms.” Effective training implies that executives, managers and employees are able to apply the knowledge they have acquired during training in the performance their job. Training is regarded as relevant if it is aligned with the strategic orientation of the company. The manner in which the effectiveness and relevance of training is determined should correspond with the nature and scope as well as the outcome to be achieved with the training. Rothwell and Kazanas (1994:476-486), Erasmus and Van Dyk (1999:193) as well as Van Dyk et al. (2001:229-231) identify some methods according to which training programmes are assessed in order to determine their effectiveness and relevance. It would appear that assessment mostly focuses on two components, namely: the nature and scope of the training programme and the effect of the training programme on executives, managers and employees.

THE CONCEPT OF “STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE

DEVELOPMENT” Strategic human resource development is a method in terms of which learning or the performing of knowledge processes (creation, sharing and use of knowledge) relating to the emergent strategic orientation of companies is made possible [See Chapter 3]. It focuses on the development of the skills that executives, managers and employees may require in future and is proactive in nature. The strategic orientation of companies arises from the grand strategy of the company. The grand strategy of the company contains a statement of the activities in which the company is currently involved in and will in future possibly become involved in to ensure its continued competitiveness. The strategic orientation of the company contains an indication of the manner in which the company’s grand strategy is to be accomplished.

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CONTENTS :

  • CHAPTER INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT
    • 1.1 INTRODUCTORY ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY
    • 1.2 REASONS FOR THE STUDY
    • 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
    • 1.3.1 Problem statement
    • 1.3.2 Objectives of the study
    • 1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
    • 1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
    • 1.5.1 Literature study
    • 1.5.2 Semi-standardised interviews
    • 1.6 RELEVANCE TO INFORMATION SCIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
    • 1.7 EXPLANATION OF ABBREVIATIONS AND KEY TERMS
    • 1.8 FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
  • CHAPTER THE STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENT OF COMPANIES
    • 2.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 2.2 DOMAINS IN THE STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENT OF COMPANIES
    • 2.2.1 Known or visible order domain
    • 2.2.2 Knowable or hidden order domain
    • 2.2.3 Complex domain
    • 2.2.4 Chaos domain
    • 2.2.5 Domain of disorder
    • 2.3 CYNEFIN DYNAMICS
    • 2.4 MANAGERIAL AND LEADERSHIP STYLES WITHIN STRATEGIC DOMAINS
    • 2.5 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRATEGIC DOMAINS AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
    • 2.6 CONCLUSION
  • CHAPTER LEARNING AS THE RESULT OF STRATEGIC TRAINING
    • 3.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 3.2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE PROCESSES, LEARNING AND TRAINING
    • 3.3 THE PHILOSOPHY, POLICY AND STRATEGY OF THE COMPANY WITH REGARD TO TRAINING
    • 3.4 THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE CURRICULA
    • 3.5 CORPORATE UNIVERSITIES IN RELATION TO EXTERNAL PROVIDERS OF TRAINING
    • 3.6 THE INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND MEDIA THAT ENABLE TRAINING
    • 3.6.1 Classroom-based learning
    • 3.6.2 Technology-based learning
    • 3.6.2.1 Types of technology
    • 3.6.2.2 Criteria
    • 3.6.3 Blended learning
    • 3.7 THE EFFECTIVENESS AND RELEVANCE OF TRAINING
    • 3.7.1 Assessing the nature and scope of training programmes
    • 3.7.2 Assessing the effect of training programmes
    • 3.8 CONCLUSION
  • CHAPTER STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
    • 4.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 4.2 THE CONCEPT OF “STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT”
    • 4.3 TRADITIONAL HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT VERSUS STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
    • 4.3.1 Traditional human resource development
    • 4.3.2 Strategic human resource development
    • 4.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
    • 4.4.1 The alignment between the grand strategy and the strategic orientation of the company as well as strategic human resource development
    • 4.4.1.1 Aligning the grand strategy and strategic human resource development
    • 4.4.1.2 Aligning the strategic orientation of the company and strategic human resource development
    • 4.4.2 The relationship between the management and development of the human resources of the company
    • 4.4.2.1 The relationship between human resource management,
    • human resource development and strategic human resource development
    • 4.4.3 The responsibilities and relationship between role players in strategic human resource development
    • 4.4.3.1 Executives and strategic human resource development
    • 4.4.3.2 The involvement of executives and individuals responsible for strategic human resource development in strategic processes
    • 4.4.3.3 Interaction between line management and individuals responsible for human resource development
    • 4.4.3.4 The responsibility of individuals responsible for strategic human resource development
    • 4.4.4 The effect of strategic human resource development on the Company
    • 4.4.4.1 Strategic human resource development and the continued competitiveness of the company
    • 4.4.4.2 Strategic human resource development and the culture of the company
    • 4.4.4.3 Strategic human resource development and knowledge processes
    • 4.5 FUTURE-ORIENTED METHODS OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
    • 4.5.1 Strategic organisational development
    • 4.5.2 Strategic employee development
    • 4.5.3 Strategic training
    • 4.6 STRATEGIC TRAINING
    • 4.6.1 The Rothwell and Kazanas (1994) model of strategic training
    • 4.6.1.1 Identifying opportunities during which strategic training should be used
    • 4.6.1.2 Identifying the strategic training needs of executives, managers and employees
    • 4.6.1.3 Determining key characteristics of learners
    • 4.6.1.4 Analysing the future [work] setting
    • 4.6.1.5 Conducting a future-oriented work analysis
    • 4.6.1.6 Preparing strategic instructional objectives
    • 4.6.1.7 Creating strategically-oriented test
    • 4.6.1.8 Arranging objectives in sequence
    • 4.6.1.9 Selecting and using appropriate delivery method
    • 4.6.1.10 Preparing and selecting content for strategic training
    • 4.6.1.11Presenting strategic training
    • 4.7 STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANIES
    • 4.8 TRAINING NEEDS OF EXECUTIVES AND MANAGERS IN SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANIES
    • 4.9 CONCLUSION
  • CHAPTER RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
    • 5.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 5.2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
    • 5.3 PHASE 1: RESEARCH PLANNING
    • 5.3.1 The research design
    • 5.3.1.1 Design strategy
    • 5.3.1.2 Data collection design
    • 5.3.1.3 Developing and testing the research instrument
    • 5.4 PHASE 2: DATA GATHERING
    • 5.4.1 Face-to-face interviews
    • 5.4.2 Evaluation of the reliability and validity of the research
    • 5.4.2.1 Reliability of the study
    • 5.4.2.2 Validity of the study
    • 5.5 CONCLUSION
  • CHAPTER ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
    • 6.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 6.2 PHENOMENOGRAPHY
    • 6.2.1 Phenomenographic analysis
    • 6.3 THE MANIFESTATION OF TRAINING IN LARGE SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANIES
    • 6.3.1 The strategic orientation of companies
    • 6.3.1.1 The nature and scope of the strategic orientation
    • 6.3.1.2 Cause of change in the strategic orientation
    • 6.3.1.3 Frequency of change in the strategic orientation
    • 6.3.1.4 The strategic orientation of companies and training
    • 6.3.2 Communicating the strategic orientation
    • 6.3.2.1 Communicating the strategic orientation and training
    • 6.3.3 The training infrastructure
    • 6.3.3.1 The nature and scope of training programmes
    • 6.3.3.2 Corporate universities and other training units
    • 6.3.3.3 External providers of training
    • 6.3.3.4 Involving executives and managers in training
    • 6.3.3.5 The instructional methods and media that enable training
    • 6.3.3.6 The effectiveness and relevance of training
    • 6.3.3.7 Training the value chain
    • 6.4 STRATEGIC TRAINING VERSUS TRADITIONAL TRAINING IN
    • LARGE SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANIES
    • 6.4.1 The relationship between the emergent strategic orientation of companies and strategic training
    • 6.4.2 Communicating the emergent strategic orientation
    • 6.4.3 The training infrastructure and strategic training
    • 6.4.3.1 The nature and scope of strategic training programmes
    • 6.4.3.2 Corporate universities and other training units
    • 6.4.3.3 External providers of strategic training
    • 6.4.3.4 Involving executives and managers in strategic training
    • 6.4.3.5 The instructional methods and media that enable strategic training
    • 6.4.3.6 The effectiveness and relevance of strategic training
    • 6.4.3.7 Training the value chain and strategic training
    • 6.5 STRATEGIC TRAINING IN LARGE SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANIES
    • 6.5.1 Awareness of strategic training
    • 6.5.2 The use of strategic training
    • 6.5.2.1 Companies which are aware of the concept “strategic training”and make use of a strategic training process
    • 6.5.2.2 Companies which are aware of the concept “strategic training” but do not make use of a strategic training process
    • 6.5.2.3 Companies which are unaware of the concept “strategic training” and do not make use of a strategic training process
    • 6.5.3 Strategic training needs of executives and managers
    • 6.6 COMPARATIVE PROFILE OF COMPANIES D AND W
    • 6.7 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN LARGE SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANIES
    • 6.8 CONCLUSION
  • CHAPTER A FRAMEWORK FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF A CYCLICAL STRATEGIC TRAINING PROCESS IN LARGE SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANIES
    • 7.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 7.2 INDUCTIVE GENERALISATION
    • 7.3 CYCLICAL STRATEGIC TRAINING PROCESS
    • 7.3.1 Orientation phase
    • 7.3.2 Identification phase
    • 7.3.3 Implementation phase
    • 7.3.3.1 Corporate universities and other units
    • 7.3.3.2 Target group
    • 7.3.3.3 External providers of training
    • 7.3.3.4 Involving executives and managers in training
    • 7.3.3.5 The instructional methods and media that enable training
    • 7.3.3.6 The effectiveness and relevance of training
    • 7.3.3.7 Training the value chain
    • 7.2.3 Feedback phase
    • 7.3 CONCLUSION
  • CHAPTER SYNTHESIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
    • 8.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 8.2 SYNTHESIS
    • 8.2.1 Purpose of the study
    • 8.2.2 Extent of the study
    • 8.2.3 Importance of the study
    • 8.2.3.1 The use of knowledge management at a strategic level
    • 8.2.3.2 Training in strategic domains
    • 8.2.3.3 The use of strategic training
    • 8.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
    • 8.3.1 Recommendation
    • 8.3.2 Recommendation
    • 8.3.3 Recommendation
    • 8.3.4 Recommendation
    • 8.3.5 Recommendation
    • 8.3.6 Recommendation
    • 8.3.7 Recommendation
    • 8.3.8 Recommendation
    • 8.3.9 Recommendation
    • 8.3.10 Recommendation
    • 8.3.11 Recommendation
    • 8.3.12 Recommendation
    • 8.3.13 Recommendation
    • 8.4 FURTHER AREAS OF RESEARCH
    • 8.5 CONCLUSIONARY REMARKS

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THE STRATEGIC CONTINUING TRAINING NEEDS OF EXECUTIVES AND MANAGERS IN A SELECTION OF LARGE SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANIES

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