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CHAPTER3 Whole brain creativity
INTRODUCTION
The split brain studies which commenced during the 1960s demonstrated significant differences between the functions of the left and right hemispheres of the brain. These studies, together with the vast amount of research studies initiated since, have led to the psychophysiological approach, the analysis of mental functioning which has subse-quently gained great impetus. The new knowledge generated through this approach, which includes the concept of cerebral dominance and implies that in each individual one hemisphere tends to play a more important role than the other, has resulted in a new understanding of the nature and process of learning. This has had far-reaching implications in the field of education.
Originating from the split brain theory is the myth that the right hemisphere is the only one responsible for holistic, intuitive and creative imaginative operations, while the left is the seat of logical, linear and verbal operations. Recent research studies have, however, found this not to be valid. The contemporary view on the nature of creative-ness is summarised in the following quotation by Williams (1983 :4 ):
… the differences between the hemispheres should not obscure the fact that it is their complementaryfunctioning that gives the mind its power and flexibility.
The whole brain creativity model which was derived from a synthesis of the triune brain and left brain/right brain theories, will be described and discussed in this chapter, and its relationship to creativity learning, explored.
THE SPLIT BRAIN STUDIES
Speculation about the cerebral asymmetry of the human brain took on new dimensions during the 1960s as a result of the brain operations carried out on patients suffering from intractable epileptic seizures. During these operations the corpus callosum (a mass of nerve fibres connecting the cerebral hemispheres) was split in order to reduce the severity of the seizures. The first operation, performed by Roger Sperry (Nobel Prize Winner for Physiology and Medicine, 1981 ), Joseph Bogan and Michael Gazzaniga, proved successful and the patient responded to medication afterwards. This initiated research into the split brain phenomenon in human subjects at the California Institute of Technology, which comprised the same surgical procedure on similar patients, followed by various brain function tests (Corballis 1980:286; Zdenek 1985:10).
These split brain studies revealed that after the corpus callosum was bisected one cerebral hemisphere could not communicate with the other. Each functioned separately in isolation. Thus the separate functions of the left and right hemispheres of the brain could be studied through sophisticated testing procedures. Results showed that the left and right hemispheres had their own areas of specialisation and subsequent tests showed that, in a normal brain, the corpus callosum enables the cerebral hemispheres to work together although one hemisphere predominates for a specific task (Zdenek 1985:11-12).
The results of the early investigators, who based their conclusions about hemispheric specialisation on studies of brain-damaged subjects, were queried by others who doubted that these findings could be generalised for the entire population. The answer came during the 1970s when Robert Ornstein was one of the first to demonstrate that hemispheric specialisation was not limited to abnormal people but could be measured in all people. Data gathered through electro-encephalographic techniques showed that when subjects were engaged in specific tasks, brain waves indicated that only one hemisphere was engaged while the other was idling (Herrmann 1989:13).
LEFT AND RIGHT HEMISPHERIC SPECIALISATION
The research on split brain patients and, more recently, on normal subjects, reinforces the conclusion that the two hemispheres of the brain are indeed specialised for two different modes of thinking. The left one has been attributed with linear (Efron 1963 ), verbal ( Gazzaniga 1970 ), and analytic (Milner 1971 ), thinking processes, whereas the right has been described as the one responsible for the exhibition of non-verbal (Kimara 1967), synthetic (Levy-Aggresti and Sperry 1968), and holistic (Nebes 1974) processes (Harpaz 1990: 161). Table 3.1 is a synopsis of several researchers’ findings on brain specialisa-tion (Kolb 1984:49; Sisk 1987:291; Williams 1983;26; Zdenek 1985:13-14).
Current consensus of opinion on brain asymmetry and creativity is characterised by the assumption that the source of creative behaviour resides in the right hemisphere (Bogen Bogen 1969; Olson 1977; Ornstein 1977; Torrance & Reynolds 1978; Gowan 1979), there is, however, agreement that creativity can originate in both hemispheres but that it does require interaction between the two hemispheres (West 1975; Brandwein & Ornstein 1977; McCallum & Glyn 1979) in Harpaz (1990:161).
According to Zdenek (1985:15, 17), most creative work requires the combined abilities of intuitive awareness and logical thinking – a scientist needs his logical left hemisphere for analytical reasoning but it is his intuitive right hemisphere which provides that leap of insight that solves a complex problem. This concept is confirmed by Rubenzer in the following quote:
… the most productive and creative intellectual functioning is theorised to occur when there is cooperation between hemispheres (Gowan, Khatena Torrance 1981 :280).
TWO DIFFERENT THEORIES OF HOW THE BRAIN IS ORGANISED PHYSIOLOGICALLY
In order to understand the theory of whole brain creativity it is necessary to investigate two current theories of brain organisation – the triune brain theory and the left brain/right brain theory.
The triune brain theory
The triune brain is an evolutionary model of the brain in which it is envisaged as a three layered structure. It is proposed that it developed over a period of time from three separate brains, with each successive entity being superimposed over the earlier one or ones. This theory of how the brain is organised physiologically has been developed by Paul MacLean, Head of the Laboratory for Brain Evolution and Behaviour, at the National Institute for Mental Health, Maryland, United States of America.
The first or oldest brain is the primitive reptilian brain (found in prehistoric as well as present-day reptiles such as alligators and lizards) comprising the brain stem, mid-brain, basal ganglia and reticular activating system. It is driven by instinct and governs vital body functions.
The second oldest is the limbic part of the mammalian brain which encircles the reptilian brain. The limbic brain is the centre for instinct and feeling and is responsible for maintaining the body’s internal equilibrium.
The third brain (newest part of the brain), lies over the limbic brain and is known as the cerebrum or neocortex. The neocortex (which, in a human being, makes up approximately five-sixths of the total) consists of a convoluted mass of grey matter (nerve cells) and is responsible for the higher thought processes which enables the human to think, perceive and speak (De Meneses 1980:442; Herrmann 1989:31, 435) (see figure 3 .1 ).
The left brain/right brain theory
The key-aspects of the left brain/right brain theory comprise the organisation of the left and right cerebral hemispheres, the left and right halves of the limbic system, the interconnecting fibres and two patterns of brain functioning: situational and iterative.
The brain is divided anatomically into two halves, referred to as the left and right hemispheres. The greater portion of the left and right hemispheres consists of the left and right cerebral hemispheres which are responsible for the higher thinking processes: vision, hearing, intentional motor control, purposeful behaviour, language and non-verbal ideation.
The left and right halves of the limbic system, located between the cerebral hemispheres and the brain stem, are much smaller than the cerebral hemispheres (neocortex).
The limbic system comprises, inter alia, the thalamus and hypothalamus, and is believed to control the inner being of the person. Apart from regulating emotions, metabolic functions, involuntary aspects of behaviour and the autonomic nervous system; it is also actively involved with the sensory, short-term and long-term memories (Herrmann 1989: 32-33; Marieb 1989:389-390).
The interconnecting nervous fibres in the brain, which connect the different parts of the brain, provide the physiological basis for wholeness in mental functioning. The corpus callosum connects the two cerebral hemispheres, providing a channel for hemispheric communication. Sperry and Gazzaniga’s famous split-brain studies during the 1960s demonstrated that without this connection the left or right cerebral hemisphere has no way of integrating one specialised mode of knowing with that of its complement; the brain cannot, for example, develop a concept from a visual experience and then translate it into spoken words.
The left and right halves of the limbic system are connected by the hippocampal commissure which facilitates inter-limbic communication, whereas the cerebral hemispheres are connected to the limbic system through the projection fibres (Herrmann 1989:36-37; Marieb 1989:386) (see figure 3.1).
Situational functioning
Situational functioning of the brain refers to the phenomenon that occurs if a region of the brain, specialised to perform a task called for in a particular situation, is activated, then the regions not required for the task go into a resting state. Research has demonstra-ted that the activated region of the brain sends out beta waves (high frequency waves indicating working mode) while the regions of the brain that are relaxed exhibit alpha (lower in frequency than beta) or theta (low frequency) waves. The intensity of brain waves is measured by electro-encephalogram (EEG). When a person is painting, for example, his language centre idles in alpha waves while his visual and spacial processing centres emit beta waves. The ability of the human brain to function situationally is crucial to a person’s effectiveness. The region of the brain needed to function in a particular situation must be able to do so without competition or interference from other regions (Gowan, Khatena & Torrance 1981:275-276; Herrmann 1989:37).
Iterative functioning
Iteration refers to the back-and-forth movement of signals among the brain’s specialised regions when performing a task. It can occur within or between hemispheres. The following is an example of iteration through the corpus callosum. A film conveying a complex idea in visual metaphors is shown to a group of people who are expected to write down their interpretations of its meaning. Signals are sent from the non-verbal region in the brain to the language region, where the pictures are translated into words. During this process iteration occurs between the right and left cerebral hemispheres. When rational thought is overwhelmed by emotional energy, iteration has taken place between the left cerebral hemisphere and the right half of the limbic system (Herrmann 1989:38-39).
Edward de Bono (a British physician) also refers to the brain’s iterative behaviour and adds that it is biased and self-maximising (Parnes 1992:247). This explains why individuals viewing the film in the above-mentioned example will have different interpretations whose nature is dependent on perceptual differences (which include the involvement of emotions residing in the limbic system).
CHAPTERl Orientation to the study
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 EXPOSITION OF THE PROBLEM
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
1.4 ASSUMPTIONS
1.5 AIMS OF THE STUDY
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1.8 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
1.9 DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF TERMINOLOGY
1.10 OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH
CHAPTER2 The nature of creativity
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 MODERN CONCEPTIONS OF CREATIVITY
2.3 CRITERIA FOR DEFINITIONS OF CREATIVITY
2.4 DEFINITIONS OF CREATIVITY
2.5 THEORIES OF CREATIVITY
2.6 SYNTHESIS
CHAPTER3 Whole brain creativity
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 THE SPLIT BRAIN STUDIES
3.3 LEFT AND RIGHT HEMISPHERIC SPECIALISATION
3.4 TWO DIFFERENT THEORIES OF HOW THE BRAIN IS ORGANISED PHYSIOLOGICALLY
3.5 THE WHOLE BRAIN CREATIVITY MODEL
3.6 SYNTHESIS
3. 7 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER4 The nature of creative learning
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 COGNITIVE STYLES (LEARNING STYLES
4.3 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
4.4 THEORIES OF LEARNING
4.5 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER Educational models and creativity
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 ADULT LEARNING
5.3 MASTERY OF LEARNING
5.4 EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
5.5 OPEN LEARNING
5.6 THE RELATION BETWEEN THE FOUR EDUCATIONAL MODELS AND CREATIVITY
5. 7 SYNTHESIS
CHAPTER6 The practice of nursing
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 DEFINITIONS OF NURSING
6.3 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF NURSING
6.4 PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE
6.5 THE SCIENCE-ART OF NURSING PRACTICE
6.6 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 7 Innovative teaching strategies
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 BRAINSTORMING
7.3 CREATIVE PROBLEM-SOLVING
7.4 TEACHING BY METAPHOR
7.5 SYNECTICS
7.6 VISUALISATION: IMAGERY AND FANTASY
7. 7 HUMOUR AS A TEACHING STRATEGY
7.8 WRITING AS AN INNOVATIVE TEACHING STRATEGY
7.9 ROLE PLAY
7.10 SOCIODRAMA (PSYCHODRAMA)
7.11 SIMULATION .
7.12 THE CASE STUDY
7.13 VALUES CLARIFICATION
7 .14 SYNTHESIS
CHAPTERS A nursing education model for the fostering of creativity
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 BACKGROUND OF THE MODEL
8.3 ASSUMPTIONS WHEREUPON THE MODEL IS BASED
8.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL
8.5 EVALUATION OF THE MODEL
8.6 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER9 Summary, conclusions and recommendations
9.1 SUMMARY
9.2 CONCLUSIONS
9.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSE EDUCATORS
9.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
9.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
9.6 POST SCRIPT
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