THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EPWP ACROSS PROVINCES AND SECTORS

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Poverty caused by economic, political, and social distortions or discrimination

This is a progressive social theory. Theorists in this tradition look not to the individual as a source of poverty, but to the economic, political, and social system which causes people to have limited opportunities and resources with which to achieve income and well-being. Research and theories in this tradition attempt to redress the problem noted by Rank, Yoon and Hirschl (2003:4) that; “poverty researchers have in effect focused on who loses out at the economic game, rather than addressing the fact that the game produces losers in the first place.”
The 19th century social intellectuals developed a full attack on the individual theory of poverty by exploring how social and economic systems overrode and created individual poverty situations. Radical thinkers argued that the system was flawed and should be radically transformed. Much of the literature on poverty now suggests that the economic system is structured in such a way that poor people fall behind regardless of how competent they may be. Partly the problem is the fact that minimum wages do not allow single mothers or their families to be economically self-sufficient (Jencks, 1996:72). Thus, the EPWP identified them as one of the target groups for participation.
The problem of the working poor is increasingly seen as a wage problem linked to structural barriers preventing poor families from getting better jobs, complicated by limited numbers of jobs near workers and lack of growth in sectors supporting lower skilled jobs (Tobin, 1994:10). Hence, the EPWP is encouraging local unemployed labours. Interestingly research is showing that the availability of jobs to low income people is about the same as it has been, but wages workers can expect from these jobs have fallen. Respondents in this study highlighted insufficient funds which lead to low daily wage rate on participants. SA is protecting the EPWP minimum wage rate through the Ministerial Determination annually. Elimination of structural barriers to better jobs through education and training have been the focus of extensive manpower training and other programs, generating substantial numbers of successes but also perceived failures. This systemic failure of the schools is thus thought to be the reason poor people have low achievement, poor rates of graduation, and few who pursue higher education (Chubb and Moe, 1996:11).
A parallel barrier exists with the political system in which the interests and participation of the poor is either impossible or is deceptive. Recent research has confirmed the linkage between wealth and power, and has shown how poor people are less involved in political discussions, their interests are more vulnerable in the political process, and they are excluded at many levels. Coupled with racial discrimination, poor people lack influence in the political system that they might use to mobilise economic benefits and justice (Bradshaw, 2006:17).

Anti-poverty programs from a structure of poverty perspective

Community participation is encouraged in PWPs. The public private partnership (PPP) cannot be divorced from the PWPs. If the problem of poverty is in the system rather than in the poor themselves, a community development response must be to change the system.
The system can be changed at three levels. From a grassroots level, social movements can exert pressures on vulnerable parts of the system to force desired change. Although most studies show a decline in support for poor people‟s social action, Rank (2004:189 – 191) argues that change could be mobilised to support better jobs for the poor and a more effective system since as the subtitle of his book states, “American poverty affects us all”. For example, public pressure including unionisation can increase wages and gain employment for persons systematically excluded. Civil rights movements have had a strong impact on breaking down formal barriers, as has the woman‟s movement. Community organising in the Alinsky (1945) tradition has helped reduce poverty across the country (Rank, 2004:233). The ANC-led Government introduced the EPWP in SA which is politically driven. Respondents in this study and the EPWP reporting system have shown in the participant recruitment strategy that some participants are identified by ward councillors etc. Therefore political buy-in is important.
A second strategy within community development for changing the system involves creating and developing alternative institutions which have access, openness, innovation, and a willingness to help the poor gain well-being. This strategy is at the cornerstone of most community development corporations which aim to provide alternative businesses, housing, schooling, and programs. In addition, business strategies such as employee ownership or networks of minority or women‟s businesses also work. Community owned businesses such as community banks also provide alternative structures. Finally, change can occur through the policy process (Page and Simmons, 2000:12). As mentioned above, the EPWP within the Enterprise development unit is also placing and supporting participants at FET colleges and forming cooperatives.

READ Compelled evidence and the privilege against self-incrimination

Poverty caused by geographical disparities

Rural poverty, ghetto poverty, urban disinvestment, Southern poverty, third-world poverty, and other framings of the problem represent a spatial characterisation of poverty that exists separate from other theories. This theory highlights that people, institutions, and cultures in certain areas lack the objective resources needed to generate well-being and income, and that they lack the power to claim redistribution. As Shaw (1996:29) points out the space is not a backdrop for capitalism, but rather is restructured by it and contributes to the system‟s survival. The geography of poverty is a spatial expression of the capitalist system.
In SA poverty is most intense in rural areas than in urban areas. To address that, the implementation of the EPWP is structured in such a way that it supports all projects in the rural areas. Each public body, apart from rural municipalities must meet a minimum eligibility threshold before they can start accessing the incentive grants, see details in chapter 3. This will also culminates the migration of rural areas dwellers to urban areas due to unemployment and poverty. In a thorough review of the literature on rural poverty, Weber and Jensen (2004:8) note that most literature finds a rural differential in poverty, but that the spatial effect is not as clearly isolated from individual effects as needed for confidence.
As Hansen (1970:13) points out, rural areas are often the last stop of technologies; low wages and competitive pricing dominate production. The lack of infrastructure that allows development of human resources limits economic activity that might use these resources. Investors usually do not invest in disadvantage areas, therefore, it was best for the EPWP to prefer local labour and cater for rural municipalities when setting thresholds for incentives. Rural poverty is similarly attributable to selective out migration. Gauteng respondents in this study specified that participants in urban areas demand high stipend as compared to participants in rural areas. Population density is another part of a growing body of theory on spatial variables in social science using the tools of GIS to track spatial dynamics of opportunity and poverty (Bradshaw et al., 2003:13). The EPWP reporting system has got ability to geo reference projects.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background to the study .
1.3 Statement of the problem
1.4 The research problem
1.5 The purpose of the study
1.7 Research Questions.
1.8 Research design
1.9 Limitations of Research
1.10 Structures of Chapters
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL DISCUSSION
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Understanding unemployment and poverty .
2.3 The role of PWPs in addressing unemployment and poverty
2.4 The design features of PWPs
2.5 Five theories of poverty in contemporary literature
2.6 The role of EPWP in South Africa .
2.7 EPWP Implementation process.
2.8 EPWP performance in SA .
2.9 Factors that necessitated the EPWP
2.10 Poverty in South Africa .
2.11 Poverty reduction policies
2.12 Sustainability
CHAPTER 3: THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EPWP ACROSS PROVINCES AND SECTORS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Background
3.3 EPWP guidelines
3.4 The legal frameworks
3.5 EPWP performance indicators and concepts
3.6 Funding of the EPWP
3.7 Sector plans
3.8 EPWP reporting
3.9 EPWP phase 1
3. 10 Training in the EPWP .
3.11 International experiences of public works programmes
3.12 Moving towards international best practices
3.13 Strategies that can be adapted to a South African setting
3.14 EPWP Phase 2
3.15 EPWP incentive grants (IG)
3.16 Monitoring & evaluation (M&E) and reporting
3.17 Effectiveness of the EPWP
3.18 Challenges facing Implementing and Reporting bodies
3.19 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Description of research methodology
4.4 Scope
4.5 Target population
4.6 Sampling
4.8 Data sampling technique
4.9 Research paradigms
4.10 Reliability and validit
4.11 Data analysis .
4.12 Limitations and strengths of the research
4.13 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5: PRESENTATION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF EMPIRICAL KEY FINDINGS
CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION